{ "contract": "atlas-static-api/1/nodes", "count": 515, "nodes": [ { "id": "claim/abraham-abundant-welcome", "type": "claim", "label": "Abraham's welcome exceeds his stated offer", "summary": "The narrative's running, hastening, and large meal make abundance—not merely admission under a roof—the distinctive shape of Abraham's welcome.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Genesis 18:1–8 depicts Abraham offering three men water, foot washing, shade, bread, a calf, dairy, and personal service; his actual provision materially exceeds the promised 'morsel of bread.'", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The provisions are explicit, but Abraham's point of recognition is debated: Genesis 18:1 announces the LORD's appearance to the reader, while the scene initially describes 'three men.'", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 18:1–8" }, { "source": "source/ahn-venter-genesis-18", "note": "On the scene's fellowship pattern and debated recognition." } ] }, { "id": "claim/acaranga-mendicant-rigor-is-role-specific", "type": "claim", "label": "Ācārāṅga food rules address mendicant non-harm", "summary": "Inspection of seeds, sprouts, water, and living material is an operational rule for monks and nuns, not a direct inventory of every lay obligation.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Ācārāṅga II.1.1 requires male and female mendicants to inspect and reject alms affected by living beings, seeds, sprouts, water, and still-living plant material.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The passage establishes a rigorous mendicant rule. Jain lay practice is governed through graded vows and contextual disciplines, so projecting this rule unchanged onto all Jains would erase a central institutional distinction.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "locator": "Book II, Lecture 1, Lesson 1, §§1–4" }, { "source": "source/cort-jains-in-the-world" }, { "source": "source/dundas-jains" } ] }, { "id": "claim/acaranga-noninjury-crosses-life-categories", "type": "claim", "label": "Ācārāṅga extends non-injury across categories of life", "summary": "Its prohibition covers slaying, violence, abuse, torment, and driving away rather than only intentional killing of humans.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Ācārāṅga I.4.1 directs that breathing, existing, living, and sentient creatures are not to be slain, treated with violence, abused, tormented, or driven away.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Jacobi's English categories translate a technical Prakrit enumeration, and Jain schools and social roles differ on how non-injury is applied under embodied conditions where all harm cannot be eliminated.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 4, Lesson 1, §1" }, { "source": "source/chapple-nonviolence-animals-earth-self" }, { "source": "source/long-jainism-introduction" } ] }, { "id": "claim/acaranga-responsibility-includes-consent", "type": "claim", "label": "Ācārāṅga includes causing and allowing within responsibility", "summary": "The text's first-person grammar expands agency beyond an act performed by one's own body.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Ācārāṅga I.1.1 names doing an act, causing another to do it, and allowing another to do it among causes of sin that must be comprehended and renounced.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Commentarial and philosophical accounts refine how intention, negligence, instrumentality, and consent affect karmic bondage; the passage should not be paraphrased as a modern legal test of complicity.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 1, Lesson 1, §§4–7" }, { "source": "source/dundas-jains" } ] }, { "id": "claim/analects-learning-practice-joy", "type": "claim", "label": "Analects learning stresses practice and joy", "summary": "The Analects links repeated learning and practice to moral cultivation and a joyful disposition.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In the Analects, moral learning is a repeated practice that cultivates character and is associated with joy in the process of self-cultivation.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some Confucian scholarship foregrounds ritual duty over subjective joy and reads Analects 1.1 more as pedagogical seriousness than emotional reward.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "1.1" }, { "source": "source/slingerland-analects", "locator": "Ch. on learning and practice" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-distributive-justice-proportion", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle defines distributive justice proportionally", "summary": "Aristotle distinguishes distributive justice by geometric proportion.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Aristotle distinguishes distributive justice as proportionate equality, assigning goods to persons by geometric proportion rather than strict arithmetic equality.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Disagreement centers on whether his geometric proportion can be mapped onto modern anti-discrimination egalitarian frameworks or is tied to household/political status distinctions.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "V.1131a–1131b" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics", "locator": "Book V, distributive justice" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-eudaimonia-final-end", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle treats eudaimonia as final self-sufficient good", "summary": "Aristotle defines eudaimonia as a final end and a good that completes human life by itself.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Aristotle, eudaimonia is characterized as an ultimate end sought for its own sake and as a self-sufficient good.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some interpreters argue that Aristotle's discussion of self-sufficiency can be read as an idealized account of complete flourishing and does not erase all dependence on social and material conditions.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "I.7" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-external-goods-matter", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle allows external goods as conditions of flourishing", "summary": "Aristotle includes external conditions as relevant to complete human flourishing.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Aristotle claims that flourishing requires some external goods and opportunities, such as health and friendship, to be fully realized.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "A debate persists over whether these goods are necessary for eudaimonia itself or only for an unrestricted realization of the ideal in practical civic life.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "I.8-10" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics", "locator": "Chapters on external goods" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-flourishing-activity-virtue", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle identifies flourishing with virtuous activity", "summary": "Flourishing is an excellent activity of the soul, not a passing mood.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Aristotle's framework, eudaimonia is the activity of the soul living excellently, not an episodic emotional state.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some scholars describe this as a normative model that idealizes stable fulfillment, while others emphasize Aristotle's moral psychology and would allow broader moods within flourishing narratives.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "I.7" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics", "locator": "Book I, ch. 7" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-friendship-civic-bond", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle treats civic friendship as a social bond", "summary": "Aristotle links friendship to civic cohesion.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Aristotle treats civic friendship as a social condition that helps sustain just community and trust between citizens.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some scholarship reads friendship as primarily moral and optional, while others argue it is a constitutive political virtue for stable citizenship.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "VIII.1156a–1158a" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics", "locator": "Friendship and politics" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-friendship-constitutive-good", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle views friendship as part of flourishing", "summary": "Aristotle treats friendship as a constitutive element of the well-lived life.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Aristotle places friendship among the goods that belong to human flourishing, not as a mere accessory to moral life.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readings present friendship as context-dependent rather than strictly constitutive, seeing it as maximally valuable in many regimes but not structurally required in every eudaimonistic account.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "VIII-IX" }, { "source": "source/annas-morality-happiness", "locator": "Ch. 3" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-justice-complete-virtue", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle calls justice a complete virtue toward others", "summary": "Aristotle identifies justice as a complete virtue in relation to others.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Aristotle describes justice as a complete virtue in relation to others, because it orders one’s actions to a shared ethical good with fellow citizens.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Interpretive disagreement is whether Aristotle’s ‘complete virtue’ language is primarily normative or primarily legal in this context.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "V.1129b" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics", "locator": "Justice as complete virtue" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-obligation-character-relations", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle grounds civic obligation in character relations", "summary": "Aristotle ties friendship obligations to character-based virtue rather than mere utility.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Aristotle, obligations in virtuous friendship are rooted in shared character and mutual recognition, not only reciprocal exchange or utility.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "There is disagreement over whether Aristotle limits this to complete friendship or allows this structure to guide weaker, instrumental forms of relation.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "VIII.1155a–1160a; IX.1167a" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics", "locator": "Character and complete friendship" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-politics-common-advantage-standard", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle uses common advantage as the constitutional standard", "summary": "A core standard in Aristotle’s account is that political institutions are to be assessed by whether they serve the common advantage.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Aristotle argues that the criterion separating constitutional types is whether government acts for the common advantage rather than private interest.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readers read this as evaluative classification of regime types, while others read it as a heuristic that Aristotle applies only within his preferred social ontology.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-politics-1885", "locator": "Politics III.6-7, 1279a17-31" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-political-philosophy-2002", "locator": "Book III, constitutions" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-politics-political-animal-nature", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle treats political association as natural to humans", "summary": "Aristotle frames political life as a natural end-state of human development, not merely a conventional arrangement.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Aristotle claims that humans are by nature political animals, implying that the polis is a natural community rather than a mere convenience.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Disagreement remains over whether this sentence is a strict anthropological claim or primarily a normative claim about how humans should live politically.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-politics-1885", "locator": "Politics I.2 1253a2-3" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-political-philosophy-2002", "locator": "Political nature and teleology" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-politics-true-vs-deviant-constitutions", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle labels rule forms as true or deviant by shared purpose", "summary": "Aristotle’s regime distinctions are paired: each proper form is contrasted with a perverted version when rulers seek private gain.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Aristotle identifies correct constitutions as those oriented to the common good and characterizes their perversions as rule forms oriented to rulers’ private interest.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Debate concerns how strict this pairing is across Aristotle’s full corpus and whether all later examples of democracy/oligarchy fit his technical labels.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-politics-1885", "locator": "Politics III.7, 1279a25-31" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-political-philosophy-2002", "locator": "Constitutional taxonomy" } ] }, { "id": "claim/aristotle-virtue-habituation", "type": "claim", "label": "Aristotle grounds virtue in habituation", "summary": "Aristotle treats repeated habituation as central to becoming virtuous.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Aristotle holds that moral virtue is cultivated through repeated practice and habituation until it becomes stable in action.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some interpreters place greater weight on deliberative insight over habituation, arguing that practical wisdom can emerge in ways not captured by repetition alone.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "II.1" }, { "source": "source/annas-morality-happiness", "locator": "Ch. 2" } ] }, { "id": "claim/atrahasis-post-flood-population-controls", "type": "claim", "label": "Atrahasis ends with controls on human reproduction", "summary": "The catastrophe is followed not by renewed unlimited multiplication but by a revised human order: failed births, infant mortality, and cultic categories restricted from childbearing limit population growth.", "status": "draft", "statement": "At the end of Atra-ḫasīs Tablet III, the gods institute barrenness, infant mortality, and cultic categories of women restricted from childbearing as continuing checks on human reproduction after the flood.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The measures are textually present, but their social-historical referents and the exact relationship between human rigmu, demographic growth, and divine policy are debated; Heffron cautions against reducing rigmu to neutral population noise.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/dalley-myths-mesopotamia", "locator": "Tablet III, obverse vii, p. 35" }, { "source": "source/heffron-atrahasis-noise" } ] }, { "id": "claim/augustine-grace-delivers-divided-will", "type": "claim", "label": "Augustine does not make self-command self-sufficient", "summary": "The divided will's remedy is not simply a stronger act of the same isolated will: Augustine names divine grace through Christ as the answer to bondage.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confessions VIII.5.12 answers the habit-bound will's question of deliverance with God's grace through Jesus Christ, so Augustine's account does not treat autonomous self-command as sufficient.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The appeal to grace is explicit, but Book VIII predates the Pelagian controversy; scholars disagree how directly its conversion narrative anticipates Augustine's later mature doctrines of grace and will.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pilkington-confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII.5.12" }, { "source": "source/komline-augustine-will", "locator": "pp. 59–120" } ] }, { "id": "claim/augustine-habit-binds-will", "type": "claim", "label": "Augustine makes habit both chosen and binding", "summary": "The chain is neither an alien force nor effortless freedom: repeated consent forms a custom that later constrains the person who formed it.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confessions VIII.5.10 presents disordered desire as originating in a perverse will and becoming bondage through indulgence, custom, and unresisted habit.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The sequence is explicit, but scholars disagree over how Book VIII anticipates Augustine's later accounts of fallen agency and grace; it should not be retrofitted uncritically with every claim from the later Pelagian controversy.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pilkington-confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII.5.10" }, { "source": "source/komline-augustine-will", "locator": "pp. 59–120" } ] }, { "id": "claim/augustine-will-is-partial", "type": "claim", "label": "Augustine's two wills are one incomplete agency", "summary": "The garden conflict does not prove two substances or a second hidden self; Augustine describes one soul fluctuating because neither willing nor unwilling is wholehearted.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Confessions VIII.9–10 Augustine explains conflicting wills as one soul's incomplete willing rather than two minds or two metaphysical natures.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars debate whether this passage yields a distinct faculty of will, a failure of practical rationality, or a theological phenomenology of fallen agency. Ekenberg argues against reading it as an autonomous faculty theory.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pilkington-confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII.9–10" }, { "source": "source/ekenberg-confessions-wills", "locator": "pp. 28–45" } ] }, { "id": "claim/book-of-documents-heaven-hears-people", "type": "claim", "label": "Book of Documents links Heaven’s mandate to the people", "summary": "The Great Declaration passage presents Heaven’s visibility and hearing as publicly conditioned.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In the Great Declaration, legitimacy and rightness are described in terms of Heaven acting in relation to the people’s condition.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some interpret this line as normative rhetoric for political persuasion, while others read it as a developed theory of responsive authority.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "locator": "Great Declaration line on Heaven and the people" } ] }, { "id": "claim/book-of-documents-mandate-conditional-on-virtue", "type": "claim", "label": "Heaven's appointment is presented as conditional", "summary": "The Charge to Tâi Kiâ links preservation of the throne to constancy in virtue.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Charge to Tâi Kiâ presents Heaven's appointment as non-constant: a sovereign preserves the throne through constant virtue and loses it when virtue fails.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Debate persists over whether this is a literal procedural claim or a retrospective rhetorical device about dynastic replacement.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "locator": "Part IV, Book V, The Charge to Tâi Kiâ, Section 1 §2" }, { "source": "source/nylan-five-confucian-classics-2001", "locator": "dynastic legitimacy discussion" } ] }, { "id": "claim/book-of-documents-popular-salience-for-heavenly-mandate", "type": "claim", "label": "Book of Documents frames the people as Heaven’s referent", "summary": "Legitimacy language implies that public welfare and responsiveness are central to political authority.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Great Declaration’s imagery allows public condition to become a criterion through which Heaven’s response is inferred.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Modern scholarship differs over whether this represents institutional accountability or a moralized narrative for elite instruction.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "locator": "Great Declaration, Heaven-hears/heaven-sees lines" } ] }, { "id": "claim/confucian-duty-role-relations", "type": "claim", "label": "Confucian duties follow social roles", "summary": "Confucian duties are organized by role-specific obligations.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confucian ethical duties are specified by role relations such as ruler and minister or parent and child, each with different practical obligations.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The major disagreement concerns the balance between role-specific duties and more universal moral obligations to strangers or outsiders.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "1.6; 12.1; 12.11" }, { "source": "source/cline-confucius-rawls-justice", "locator": "Role and reciprocity analysis" }, { "source": "source/yu-ethics-confucius-aristotle", "locator": "Confucian duty structure" } ] }, { "id": "claim/confucian-flourishing-social-cultivation", "type": "claim", "label": "Confucian flourishing is social cultivation", "summary": "Flourishing in Confucianism is framed as shared cultivation through learning, ritual, and humane community.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confucian moral flourishing is achieved through social cultivation—learning and ritual in humane communities—rather than through isolated individual preference maximization.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some contemporary readings argue for a more individualist account centered on personal moral authenticity, viewing social forms as secondary instruments rather than the locus of flourishing.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/riegel-confucius", "locator": "Community and cultivation themes" }, { "source": "source/olberding-moral-exemplars", "locator": "Collective moral agency" }, { "source": "source/slingerland-analects", "locator": "Learning, ritual, and society" } ] }, { "id": "claim/confucian-li-forms-character", "type": "claim", "label": "Ritual in Confucianism shapes character", "summary": "Confucian li is treated as transformative practice rather than empty ceremonial form.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confucian li is understood as a set of practices that progressively form character and relational virtue, not mere formalism.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Critics argue that ritual can become socially performative or hierarchical in ways that distance it from ethical transformation, especially in later institutional contexts.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "12.1" }, { "source": "source/slingerland-analects", "locator": "Ritual and self-cultivation" } ] }, { "id": "claim/confucian-obligation-cultivated-not-abstract", "type": "claim", "label": "Confucian obligations are cultivated in practice", "summary": "Confucian obligation is formed through cultivation, not only by abstract rules.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confucian sources present ethical obligation as shaped by disciplined practice (xiao and li), not as compliance with detached abstract legal-style rules.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some interpreters view this as anti-formalism, while others argue Confucianism also includes explicit formal requirements that are more rule-like than this claim suggests.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "1.2; 2.3; 12.1" }, { "source": "source/cline-confucius-rawls-justice", "locator": "Cultivation and normativity" }, { "source": "source/yu-ethics-confucius-aristotle", "locator": "Ritual and moral formation" } ] }, { "id": "claim/confucian-reciprocity-mutual-obligation", "type": "claim", "label": "Confucian obligation is mutually responsive", "summary": "Confucian ethics models obligations as reciprocal, role-responsive practices.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confucian sources frame obligation as reciprocal response within relationships, not only unilateral benevolence toward others.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some modern interpreters read Confucian reciprocity as primarily hierarchical rather than mutual, while others find it structurally responsive across role asymmetries.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "2.3; 15.24; 12.22" }, { "source": "source/cline-confucius-rawls-justice", "locator": "Reciprocity and social duty" }, { "source": "source/yu-ethics-confucius-aristotle", "locator": "Comparative section on reciprocity" } ] }, { "id": "claim/confucian-reciprocity-not-rule-only", "type": "claim", "label": "Confucian ethics emphasizes reciprocity over exhaustive rule systems", "summary": "Confucian moral order is presented as reciprocity and relational discernment alongside ritual.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confucian ethics centers reciprocal responsiveness as a practical thread, rather than relying only on a complete deontological rule code.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some scholars hold that Confucian role obligations are highly codified and function much like a rule system, with reciprocity serving as one mediating principle among many.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "15.24; 4.15" }, { "source": "source/olberding-moral-exemplars", "locator": "Ch. 4–5" } ] }, { "id": "claim/confucian-ren-extend-to-others", "type": "claim", "label": "Ren extends humane concern outward", "summary": "Confucian ren extends humane concern across social distance.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confucian teaching describes ren as a humane disposition cultivated as concern extends from kin through broader social ties.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "There is debate over whether this extension is meant as universal equality or concentric partiality ordered by social role.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "15.24; 12.22" }, { "source": "source/cline-confucius-rawls-justice", "locator": "Ren and social scope" }, { "source": "source/yu-ethics-confucius-aristotle", "locator": "Ren in civic relations" } ] }, { "id": "claim/confucian-ren-relational", "type": "claim", "label": "Confucian ren is enacted in relations", "summary": "Ren is presented as relational virtue realized through conduct across social roles.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Confucian ren is not merely inward feeling; it is a practiced relational virtue expressed in everyday conduct among family and community.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some interpreters prioritize ren as an internal moral disposition and see social enactment as secondary expression rather than its primary constitutive form.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "6.30" }, { "source": "source/riegel-confucius", "locator": "Ren as relation-oriented virtue" } ] }, { "id": "claim/daodejing-knowing-not-knowing", "type": "claim", "label": "Chapter 71 treats unrecognized ignorance as a disease", "summary": "Chapter 71 links attainment with awareness of one’s epistemic limits.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In chapter 71, the Daodejing treats knowing while recognizing the limits of one's knowledge as the highest attainment, while mistaking ignorance for knowledge is diagnosed as a disease.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The wording of ch. 71 is debated: some translate it as cognitive humility, while others see it as practical self-cultivation guidance, so not-knowing is generally read as strategic restraint rather than anti-intellectualism.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "locator": "Chapter 71" }, { "source": "source/hansen-daoism", "locator": "interpretive section on knowledge, self-mastery, and Daoist wisdom" } ] }, { "id": "claim/daodejing-naming-has-limits", "type": "claim", "label": "Naming has limits in the Daodejing", "summary": "Chapter 1 distinguishes the Dao from complete linguistic capture.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Daodejing chapter 1 distinguishes the nameless Dao from named plurality, stating that naming can enumerate the ten thousand things but does not itself contain the Dao as such.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Interpretations diverge on whether this is chiefly an ontological claim about Dao, a critique of conceptual reification, or primarily a rhetorical device for limiting political intervention through language.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "locator": "Chapter 1" }, { "source": "source/hansen-daoism", "locator": "discussion of the classical term dao and naming limits" } ] }, { "id": "claim/daodejing-world-resists-grasping", "type": "claim", "label": "Chapter 29 critiques coercive control, not all planning", "summary": "Daodejing 29 frames over-control as disorder-producing, especially in governance.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Daodejing chapter 29 presents grasping intervention as destructive for the political order: the kingdom cannot be won or held by forceful doing, so the passage is narrower than a universal claim that every form of planning fails.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readers read ch. 29 as an ontological anti-project stance, while others argue it is context-bound counsel for rulers and courtly administration in unstable times; the chapter’s imagery strongly permits the latter, narrower reading.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "locator": "Chapter 29" }, { "source": "source/hansen-daoism", "locator": "political context of wu wei and limits of intervention" } ] }, { "id": "claim/daodejing-wuwei-noncoercive-action", "type": "claim", "label": "Wu wei is non-coercive efficacy, not passivity", "summary": "The text’s wu wei language prescribes minimal-force governance and action-by-refraining from coercion.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Daodejing chapters 57 and 48 describe wuwei (non-coercive action, not inactivity): effective rule is achieved through reducing forceful intervention so processes can actualize themselves.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Debate remains over whether wu wei means literal political non-action or subtle institutional steering; contemporary interpreters generally reject a pure passivity reading while disagreeing on how much hidden intervention is implied.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "locator": "Chapters 48 and 57" }, { "source": "source/hansen-daoism", "locator": "section on governance, wu wei, and non-coercive action" } ] }, { "id": "claim/deucalion-flood-is-regional", "type": "claim", "label": "Pseudo-Apollodorus's Deucalion flood is regional", "summary": "Calling Deucalion a Greek Noah erases a decisive textual limit: this witness floods most of Greece and explicitly leaves other mountain survivors alive.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Pseudo-Apollodorus Library 1.7.2 describes Zeus as flooding the greater part of Greece, not the whole earth, and explicitly preserves people other than Deucalion and Pyrrha who escape to nearby mountains.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Other Greek and Roman tellings vary in geographical scope, survivors, cause, and landing place; later universalizing versions must not be harmonized back into this particular witness.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/frazer-apollodorus", "locator": "Library 1.7.2" }, { "source": "source/aguirre-deucalion", "locator": "pp. 1–12" } ] }, { "id": "claim/dukkha-marks-existence", "type": "claim", "label": "Dukkha is a structural mark of conditioned existence", "summary": "Early Buddhist teaching treats suffering as a feature of all conditioned things, not a targeted punishment.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Early Buddhist teaching presents dukkha (suffering/unsatisfactoriness) as one of the three marks of conditioned existence — a structural feature of all conditioned things rather than a punishment aimed at individuals.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The doctrine itself is uncontested as a description of the teaching; scholars debate how it interacts with karma, which does tie some present experience to past action across lifetimes.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "locator": "ch. 2–3", "note": "Four Noble Truths and the marks of existence." } ] }, { "id": "claim/epictetus-agency-not-total-control", "type": "claim", "label": "Epictetus distinguishes agency from external outcome", "summary": "The famous opening is about the proper locus of responsibility and value, not a promise that every thought, bodily reaction, or circumstance can be controlled by willpower.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Encheiridion 1 places judgments and motivational acts among what is 'up to us' while treating body, property, reputation, and office as external to that responsible agency.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Translations of eph' hēmin include 'in our power,' 'up to us,' and 'dependent on us.' Scholars qualify exactly how impressions and involuntary reactions relate to assent; the distinction should not be modernized into total causal control over everything internal.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Encheiridion 1" }, { "source": "source/watanabe-encheiridion", "locator": "chapter 1" }, { "source": "source/long-epictetus-guide" } ] }, { "id": "claim/epictetus-flourishing-agency", "type": "claim", "label": "Epictetus grounds flourishing in agency over judgement", "summary": "Epictetus well-being depends on rational choice, not mastery of externals.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Epictetus ethics, a good life depends on using reason over impressions and choice, so flourishing is possible without control over external events themselves.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Debate persists over whether this is a full stoic metaphysics of total inner autonomy or a practical pedagogy that tolerates a wider range of morally mixed emotions.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Discourses I.1" }, { "source": "source/long-epictetus-guide" } ] }, { "id": "claim/epictetus-reason-tests-fit", "type": "claim", "label": "Epictetus makes reasonable action context-sensitive", "summary": "Rational appraisal determines what a person judges fitting in a concrete situation.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Epictetus presents rational judgment as the decisive test of what is reasonable in a concrete situation, so the same external action may be judged differently in light of a person's values and role.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Interpreters differ over how personal character, social role, and likely consequences inform what Epictetus calls reasonable; the passage does not reduce reasonableness to subjective preference.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Discourses I.2" }, { "source": "source/inwood-ethics-human-action-stoicism" } ] }, { "id": "claim/epictetus-social-roles-not-isolation", "type": "claim", "label": "Epictetus preserves role-based obligations in human flourishing", "summary": "Stoic practice remains socially engaged through family and civic roles, not social withdrawal.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Epictetan training for a good life does not reject social roles; it redirects attachment so one can fulfill duties to friends, family, and community without being ruled by outcomes.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "There is substantial disagreement over how to square role duties with radical detachment in adversity, especially when Epictetus appears to prioritize inner assent over external relational demands.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Discourses I.2" }, { "source": "source/long-epictetus-guide" } ] }, { "id": "claim/epictetus-suspends-desire-pedagogically", "type": "claim", "label": "Epictetus suspends desire as beginner training", "summary": "'For the present' and action 'with reservation' are not incidental phrases: desire is postponed until the student recognizes the good, while careful impulse toward action continues.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Encheiridion 2 instructs the beginner to remove desire 'for the present' and to use positive and negative impulse gently and with reservation, rather than establishing permanent desirelessness as the Stoic end.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Long's 'with exceptions' renders hupexairesis, usually explained as reservation. Scholars debate the detailed relationship between orexis (desire) and hormē (impulse), but the temporal qualification and continued impulse are textually explicit.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Encheiridion 2" }, { "source": "source/watanabe-encheiridion", "locator": "chapter 2" }, { "source": "source/graver-sep-epictetus", "locator": "§5" } ] }, { "id": "claim/epicurus-death-nothing", "type": "claim", "label": "Epicurus argues that death is nothing to us", "summary": "On this account, death does not harm a person in the good life because sensation ceases with it.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Because no sensible awareness remains at death, Epicurus treats death as 'nothing to us,' which removes fear of it as a component of what makes a human life go well.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The debate is whether this argument is meant only to reassure by removing fear, or whether it also makes a stronger claim that death has no intrinsic evil at all under any moral framework.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "locator": "Menoeceus 124–125" }, { "source": "source/okeefe-epicureanism" } ] }, { "id": "claim/epicurus-friendship-security", "type": "claim", "label": "Epicurean friendship gives both joy and protection", "summary": "Epicurean accounts describe friendship as a central, positive ingredient in the good life.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Epicurean life aims not only at private comfort but also at practical security and joy through friendship, making trusted relationships part of what makes life go well.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars disagree on whether this is mainly a social adaptation of prudence or a stronger existential claim that friendship has intrinsic value independent of self-interest.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "locator": "PD 27–28" }, { "source": "source/warren-cambridge-epicureanism" } ] }, { "id": "claim/epicurus-pleasure-absence-pain", "type": "claim", "label": "Epicurean pleasure is bounded by the absence of pain and turmoil", "summary": "Epicurus’s model of well-being sets its limit by freedom from pain and mental disturbance, not by endless intensity.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Epicurean flourishing is achieved when pleasure is stable and untroubled—especially through absence of bodily pain and mental agitation—rather than through limitless magnitude of sensation.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "There is disagreement over whether this is best interpreted as a purely qualitative ceiling on happiness or as a practical guideline that can still admit very intense but brief pleasures.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "locator": "PD 3" }, { "source": "source/konstan-epicurus" } ] }, { "id": "claim/epicurus-pleasure-telos", "type": "claim", "label": "Epicurus makes pleasure the telos of flourishing life", "summary": "Epicurean texts present pleasure as both the guide and target of a life that goes well.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Epicurean ethics, happiness is defined by pursuing pleasure as its principle and final end, so a well-lived human life is one ordered around this telos.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars dispute whether Epicurus should be read as a simple sensual hedonist or as proposing a restricted, criterion-based account in which virtue and practical limits shape what kind of pleasure counts as genuine flourishing.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "locator": "Menoeceus 128–129" }, { "source": "source/okeefe-epicureanism" } ] }, { "id": "claim/epicurus-prudence-guides-pleasure", "type": "claim", "label": "Epicurean prudence and justice stabilize flourishing", "summary": "Pleasure is sustained in Epicurean life only when moderated by prudence and social restraints.", "status": "draft", "statement": "For a good human life, Epicurus treats prudence (with justice as a related practical virtue) as inseparable from stable pleasure, guiding one away from choices that promise short-term gain but long-term disturbance.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readers treat prudence and justice as merely strategic complements to pleasure, while others read them as constitutive to human flourishing itself; translations and commentaries also differ on whether this is descriptive or normative.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "locator": "PD 5" }, { "source": "source/warren-cambridge-epicureanism" } ] }, { "id": "claim/first-samuel-kingship-remains-conditionally-accountable", "type": "claim", "label": "Monarchy remains conditionally accountable to YHWH", "summary": "King and people are bound by covenantal fidelity despite the political shift to monarchy.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In 1 Samuel 12:13-15 Samuel links support for kingship to covenant obedience, implying that royal authority is granted conditionally under divine accountability rather than absolute sovereignty.", "epistemicStatus": "inference", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some scholars treat this as a genuinely conditional legitimacy model in the final canonical speech; others argue it is a later editorial compromise that normalizes monarchy while preserving an earlier anti-royal frame.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Samuel 12:13-15" }, { "source": "source/mccarthy-1973-inauguration-monarchy", "locator": "1 Samuel 12" } ] }, { "id": "claim/first-samuel-monarchy-framed-as-rejection-of-divine-kingship", "type": "claim", "label": "Samuel frames monarchy as rejection of divine kingship", "summary": "The request for a king is interpreted as theological displacement, not merely administrative convenience.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In 1 Samuel 8:7 Samuel presents Israel's demand for a king as rejection of YHWH, not merely dissatisfaction with him, by saying the people have rejected the Lord from reigning over them.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The wording is undisputed, but scholars debate whether this is an early anti-monarchic voice preserved from pre-monarchical tradition or a retrospective theological framing by later editors who were already accommodating monarchy.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Samuel 8:7" }, { "source": "source/mccarthy-1973-inauguration-monarchy", "locator": "1 Samuel 8" } ] }, { "id": "claim/first-samuel-warned-extractive-kingship", "type": "claim", "label": "Samuel warns of the extractive costs of a king", "summary": "The proposed king is presented as costly: conscription, burdens, labor capture, and elite taxation are forecast.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In 1 Samuel 8:11-18 Samuel warns that a king will take sons for service, daughters for labor, land and produce for his officials, and a tenth of flocks and crops.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Most agree that 8:11-18 is rhetorically warning-heavy; disagreement concerns whether the warnings are literal institutional prediction or a polemical anti-monarchic strategy.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Samuel 8:11-18" }, { "source": "source/mccarthy-1973-inauguration-monarchy", "locator": "1 Samuel 8" } ] }, { "id": "claim/genesis-flood-ends-in-covenant", "type": "claim", "label": "Genesis answers recurring violence with a universal covenant", "summary": "The flood does not cure the human heart; the narrative instead ends with divine self-limitation, renewed fruitfulness, limits on bloodshed, and a covenant embracing all creatures.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Genesis 8:21–9:17 acknowledges that human inclination remains evil after the flood yet establishes a no-more-flood covenant with Noah, his descendants, and every living creature, marked by the bow in the cloud.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Mesopotamian flood traditions also contain post-flood assurances and reforms, so a promise of non-recurrence is not wholly unique to Genesis. The textually distinctive combination is explicit universal covenant, rainbow sign, renewed multiplication, and rules governing bloodshed.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 8:21–9:17" }, { "source": "source/day-genesis-flood", "note": "Comparative context for the post-flood settlement." } ] }, { "id": "claim/genesis-flood-judges-violence", "type": "claim", "label": "Genesis makes corruption and violence the flood's cause", "summary": "Unlike a bare catastrophe motif, Genesis repeatedly supplies an ethical diagnosis: human wickedness, corrupt flesh, and a land filled with ḥamas provoke the judgment.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Genesis 6:5–13 explicitly presents pervasive human wickedness, corruption, and violence (ḥamas) as the reason God resolves to destroy life in the flood.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The wording is explicit; disagreement concerns the compositional relationship between the Priestly violence language and the non-Priestly wickedness-and-regret language, and whether their ethical reframing was directed against a specific Mesopotamian version or a broader inherited tradition.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 6:5–13" }, { "source": "source/carr-genesis-flood", "locator": "pp. 141–177" } ] }, { "id": "claim/gilgamesh-11-reuses-atrahasis", "type": "claim", "label": "Gilgamesh Tablet XI reuses an Atrahasis flood version", "summary": "The famous Gilgamesh flood is a later insertion into the epic's immortality quest, adapted from an Atrahasis-type recension rather than originating with Gilgamesh.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Text-historical scholarship identifies Standard Babylonian Gilgamesh Tablet XI as a literary adaptation of an earlier Atrahasis flood version, incorporated after the earlier Gilgamesh compositions had taken shape.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The dependence is strongly supported, including close sequence and wording, but the immediate source was probably a lost intermediate Atrahasis recension rather than the extant Old Babylonian manuscript; the exact redactional chain cannot be recovered.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/tigay-gilgamesh-evolution", "locator": "pp. 214–229" }, { "source": "source/george-babylonian-gilgamesh", "locator": "Tablet XI introduction and critical text" } ] }, { "id": "claim/gita-action-without-fruit-attachment", "type": "claim", "label": "The Gītā detaches action from fruit and from inaction", "summary": "The same verse that denies entitlement to fruits denies attachment to not acting, blocking the popular misreading that nonattachment means passivity.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Bhagavad Gītā 2.47 directs Arjuna toward action without making its fruit his motive and explicitly rejects attachment to inaction.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Interpreters disagree whether niṣkāmakarma removes only fruit-directed desire or all desire while preserving goal-directed action without desire. The verse's anti-inaction clause is explicit, but its full theory of motivation remains contested.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 2.47, p. 48" }, { "source": "source/framarin-desire-gita", "locator": "pp. 604–617" }, { "source": "source/malinar-bhagavad-gita" } ] }, { "id": "claim/gita-attachment-desire-collapse", "type": "claim", "label": "The Gītā traces a sequence from attention to ruin", "summary": "Repeated contemplation is morally consequential because it becomes attachment, then desire and anger, before judgment itself collapses.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Bhagavad Gītā 2.62–63 explicitly orders a causal sequence from pondering sense objects through attachment, desire, anger, impaired discrimination and memory, loss of reason, and ruin.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The sequence is textually explicit; interpretation differs over whether each link is a strict psychological law, an ascetic warning, or a compressed account integrated with the surrounding yoga discipline.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 2.62–63, pp. 50–51" }, { "source": "source/malinar-bhagavad-gita" } ] }, { "id": "claim/gita-kama-rajas-foe", "type": "claim", "label": "The Gītā locates insatiable desire within guṇa psychology", "summary": "Kāma is not an isolated appetite: the text couples it with anger, rajas, obscured knowledge, and a hierarchy of senses, mind, and understanding.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Bhagavad Gītā 3.37–41 identifies desire and wrath as born from rajas, describes insatiable desire as an enemy that obscures knowledge through senses, mind, and understanding, and prescribes beginning with sense-restraint.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The wording is explicit, but its integration with later devotional and knowledge claims prevents treating sense-restraint alone as the Gītā's complete path of liberation.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 3.37–41, p. 57" }, { "source": "source/malinar-bhagavad-gita" } ] }, { "id": "claim/great-learning-aims-logic", "type": "claim", "label": "Great Learning frames ethical excellence as a governing aim", "summary": "The text presents moral cultivation and social renovation as inseparable, not as independent programs.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In the Great Learning, exemplary moral virtue is defined together with social renovation and the maintenance of highest excellence, so ethical formation and public order are presented as one program.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readings place this statement in a ritual-teaching genre and treat the triad as a pedagogical slogan rather than a full theory of constitutional order.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "locator": "opening aims passage" }, { "source": "source/gardner-four-books-2007", "locator": "section on the Four Books project" } ] }, { "id": "claim/great-learning-civic-order-via-self-renewal", "type": "claim", "label": "Great Learning ties civic order to prior self-discipline", "summary": "The text suggests that stable rule depends on moral preconditions rather than only legal procedure.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Great Learning treats civic stability as flowing from cultivated persons and regulated households, not merely from coercive command.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some scholars emphasize this as an ethical ideal with limited immediate institutional mechanism.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "locator": "opening aims and social sequence passages" }, { "source": "source/gardner-four-books-2007", "locator": "governance implications discussion" } ] }, { "id": "claim/great-learning-moral-triad-as-end", "type": "claim", "label": "Great Learning presents a three-part moral sequence", "summary": "The Great Learning links personal formation, social reform, and peace through an explicit sequence.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Great Learning text presents a sequence from self-renewal to family reform and then social peace as the practical structure of its moral teaching.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars debate whether this sequence is a coherent original core or a later editorial distillation of earlier instructional material.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "locator": "self-family-state passage" }, { "source": "source/gardner-four-books-2007", "locator": "historical introduction" } ] }, { "id": "claim/hebrews-recalls-angel-hosts", "type": "claim", "label": "Hebrews recalls the Genesis angel-host cycle", "summary": "Hebrews 13:2 converts a recognizable scriptural narrative pattern into a terse community exhortation, but does not name Abraham or Lot.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Hebrews 13:2 intentionally evokes scriptural accounts in which people host visitors who prove to be angels, with Genesis 18–19 the clearest narrative cycle behind the allusion.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The allusion to angel-host stories is strong, but the verse contains no quotation or named patriarch and may also evoke Gideon, Manoah, Tobit, or a wider Jewish hospitality tradition; exclusive dependence on Genesis 18 cannot be proved.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Hebrews 13:2; Genesis 18–19" }, { "source": "source/martin-ot-hospitality" } ] }, { "id": "claim/islam-distinguishes-social-roles", "type": "claim", "label": "Qur'anic ethics distinguish neighbors, companions, and wayfarers", "summary": "Islamic stranger-facing ethics operate through several partially overlapping roles; translating them all as a single generic stranger erases what triggers each obligation.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Qur'an 4:36 separately names the related neighbor, the non-kin or distant neighbor, the companion at one's side, and the wayfarer, while Qur'an 9:60 includes the wayfarer among recipients of distributed alms.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Commentators and translators differ over the range of al-jār al-junub and al-ṣāḥib bi-l-janb, and ibn al-sabīl is a traveler-aid category rather than automatically a private houseguest. None is a one-to-one equivalent of the Levitical gēr or Homeric xenos.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "Qur'an 4:36; 9:60" }, { "source": "source/blankinship-hospitality-islam" } ] }, { "id": "claim/islamic-guest-right-bounded-debated", "type": "claim", "label": "The Islamic guest right is time-bounded and legally debated", "summary": "Sound hadith combines a concrete right of reception with reciprocal limits: special provision for one day and night, hospitality for three days, charity beyond that, and no prolonged stay that harms the host.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Canonical hadith reports give the guest special provision for one day and night and hospitality for three days, treat provision beyond that as charity, and forbid the guest to remain until the host is burdened; Sunni jurists disagree whether ordinary hospitality is obligatory or strongly recommended and which travelers trigger the duty.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The majority Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafi'i synthesis treats hospitality as recommended, while a dominant Hanbali report makes at least the first day and night obligatory; legal discussions also differ over travelers, settlements, capacity, and enforceability. The cited online English hadith presentation did not reliably name a translator, so this draft cites canonical locators and scholarship but creates no passage quotation.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/bukhari-guest-right", "locator": "Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī 6134–6135; cf. 2461" }, { "source": "source/muslim-guest-right", "locator": "Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim 48c" }, { "source": "source/salihin-hospitality-rights", "locator": "pp. 107–139" } ] }, { "id": "claim/job-epilogue-vindicates-job", "type": "claim", "label": "The epilogue sides with the protester, not the theologians", "summary": "Job 42:7 has God rebuke the friends and affirm that Job 'hath spoken of me the thing that is right' — the book's own verdict on retribution theology.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In the epilogue of the Book of Job (42:7), God declares that the three friends have not spoken rightly of him, while Job — who protested — has; the book thereby renders the friends' retribution theology divinely rejected within the narrative itself.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The verse's content is undisputed; what is debated is its scope — whether 'spoken rightly' endorses Job's protests wholesale or his final submission, and how the (possibly older) prose frame relates to the poetry it now encloses.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Job 42:7" }, { "source": "source/newsom-job", "note": "On the prose frame's relation to the dialogues." } ] }, { "id": "claim/job-rejects-retribution", "type": "claim", "label": "Job's dialogues reject proportionate retribution", "summary": "The poetic core of Job dismantles the friends' theology that suffering reliably measures sin.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The poetic dialogues of the Book of Job reject the doctrine that suffering is reliably proportionate divine retribution for personal wrongdoing.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Widely held, but readings differ on what the book affirms instead: whether the divine speeches answer Job, silence him, or sidestep the question, and how the retribution-friendly prose frame relates to the poetry.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/newsom-job", "note": "Newsom reads the book as a contest of moral imaginations rather than a single doctrine." } ] }, { "id": "claim/john-9-rejects-sin-causation", "type": "claim", "label": "John 9 denies sin as the cause of congenital affliction", "summary": "Asked whose sin caused a man's blindness from birth, the Johannine Jesus answers 'neither' — rejecting the retributive diagnosis and reframing the affliction toward divine purpose.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In John 9:1–3, Jesus explicitly denies that a man's congenital blindness was caused by his own or his parents' sin, displacing a retributive explanation with a teleological one ('that the works of God should be made manifest in him').", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "That the text says this is undisputed. Debated: whether it rejects sin-suffering causation generally or only in this case (cf. John 5:14, where Jesus warns a healed man to 'sin no more, lest a worse thing come unto thee'), and whether the teleological reframe raises its own theodicy problem.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "John 9:1–3; cf. John 5:14" }, { "source": "source/brown-john", "note": "Commentary on John 9 and the disciples' assumption." } ] }, { "id": "claim/kalama-discourse-not-blanket-relativism", "type": "claim", "label": "Kalama discourse is not blanket relativism", "summary": "The passage rejects an indiscriminate 'anything goes' reading and ties acceptance to ethical quality.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Despite rejecting authority-only acceptance, AN 3.65 does not leave every judgment equally valid: it tests greed, hate, and delusion against harm, wise criticism, blame, and welfare, then culminates in specific Buddhist ethical practices and refuges.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readers under-read this as universal skepticism; stronger scholarship argues that the sutta is method-specific and preserves stronger normative commitments about conduct.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-an3-65", "locator": "AN 3.65:4.1–53.3" }, { "source": "source/bodhi-numerical-discourses", "locator": "AN 3.65" } ] }, { "id": "claim/kalama-discourse-rejects-hearsay-alone", "type": "claim", "label": "Kalama discourse rejects hearsay alone", "summary": "The Kālāma teaching excludes mere report, tradition, and rumor as sufficient warrants for belief.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In AN 3.65, the Buddha says that oral transmission, lineage, testament, canonical authority, reasoning, apparent competence, and teacher-status are not sufficient by themselves for accepting a teaching.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readers frame this as an early epistemology of empirical testing, while others treat it as contextual advice to villagers confronting competing teachers; both are stronger than saying the passage gives universal permission for any claim.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-an3-65", "locator": "AN 3.65:4.1–4.3" }, { "source": "source/bodhi-numerical-discourses", "locator": "AN 3.65" } ] }, { "id": "claim/kalama-discourse-tests-consequences", "type": "claim", "label": "Kalama discourse tests teachings by outcomes", "summary": "The discourse recommends acceptance only when a teaching is known to be wholesome in practice.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Buddha directs the Kālāmas to give up qualities known as unskillful, blameworthy, criticized by sensible people, and productive of harm, and to acquire qualities known through the corresponding tests to lead to welfare and happiness.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholarship agrees on outcome-based testing language, while debate centers on whether the test is strictly personal verification or also a communal/teacher-mediated process.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-an3-65", "locator": "AN 3.65:4.2–4.3; 17.1–26.3; 33.1–41.6" }, { "source": "source/bodhi-numerical-discourses", "locator": "AN 3.65" } ] }, { "id": "claim/kant-autonomy-self-legislation", "type": "claim", "label": "Kant defines autonomy as self-legislation", "summary": "Autonomy, for Kant, is moral law-giving by reason in each rational agent.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Kant defines autonomy as the will’s capacity to legislate the moral law for itself through practical reason.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some interpreters read Kant’s self-legislation as individual sovereignty, while others stress its communal validity through shared rational agency.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "III:4:440–4:441" }, { "source": "source/korsgaard-creating-kingdom-ends", "locator": "Autonomy as legislation" }, { "source": "source/oneill-acting-principle", "locator": "Moral agency section" } ] }, { "id": "claim/kant-duty-moral-worth", "type": "claim", "label": "Kant ties moral worth to duty", "summary": "Kant distinguishes dutiful motive from mere inclination.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Kant says an action has moral worth when done from duty rather than mere inclination, even when it produces agreeable outcomes.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The extent of this distinction is debated: some readings treat inclination as never irrelevant to moral worth, while others preserve a stricter Kantian exclusivity.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "I:4:397–4:398" }, { "source": "source/johnson-cureton-kant-moral", "locator": "Section on motive and duty" }, { "source": "source/wood-kantian-ethics", "locator": "Sections 1–2" } ] }, { "id": "claim/kant-good-will-unqualified-good", "type": "claim", "label": "Kant on good will as unqualified good", "summary": "Kant presents a good will as the only unconditionally good thing.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In the *Groundwork*, Kant identifies a good will as good without qualification, so its worth does not depend on outcomes.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Most interpreters accept this as Kant’s axiom, while some argue the claim depends on accepting Kant’s theory of moral worth over alternatives that prioritize outcomes or character as primary value.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "I:4:393" }, { "source": "source/johnson-cureton-kant-moral", "locator": "Chapter 3" }, { "source": "source/wood-kantian-ethics", "locator": "Moral worth and the good will" } ] }, { "id": "claim/kant-humanity-end-not-means", "type": "claim", "label": "Kant forbids treating persons merely as means", "summary": "Kant’s formula of humanity requires persons to be ends in themselves.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Kant’s humanity formula requires that one never treat rational persons merely as means for one’s purposes.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The interpretive dispute is mainly over whether this rule is absolute for all social action or only binding in direct coercion and deception cases.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "II:4:429" }, { "source": "source/wood-kantian-ethics", "locator": "Formula of humanity" }, { "source": "source/korsgaard-creating-kingdom-ends", "locator": "Ch. 2" } ] }, { "id": "claim/kant-kingdom-ends-systematic-union", "type": "claim", "label": "Kant frames moral community as a kingdom of ends", "summary": "Kant’s kingdom of ends describes a systematic union of rational lawgivers.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In the *Groundwork*, Kant presents the kingdom of ends as a systematic community in which rational agents are both authors and subjects of common moral law.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The claim is disputed between readings that see the kingdom of ends as a regulative ideal and those treating it as a near-transcendental social ontology.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "II:4:433–4:434" }, { "source": "source/korsgaard-creating-kingdom-ends", "locator": "Ch. 6" }, { "source": "source/wood-kantian-ethics", "locator": "Community and agency" } ] }, { "id": "claim/kant-universal-law-obligation", "type": "claim", "label": "Kant derives obligation from universalizable maxims", "summary": "Kant’s universalisability test generates duty by asking whether a maxim can be a universal law.", "status": "draft", "statement": "For Kant, one has obligation to act only on a maxim that can be consistently willed as universal law without contradiction.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars disagree over whether universalizability alone is decisive or whether Kant also requires further moral principles to rule out formally valid but substantively problematic maxims.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "II:4:421" }, { "source": "source/wood-kantian-ethics", "locator": "Formula 2 analysis" }, { "source": "source/oneill-acting-principle", "locator": "Acting principle interpretation" } ] }, { "id": "claim/katha-good-not-identical-pleasant", "type": "claim", "label": "The good and the pleasant are not one choice", "summary": "Naciketas's refusal is a choice for knowledge and the better good, not an assertion that every pleasure is intrinsically evil.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Kaṭha I.2.1–4 distinguishes śreyas, the better or good, from preyas, the pleasant, and presents Naciketas's refusal of wealth and pleasures as a choice for knowledge.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Translations vary between good or better for śreyas and pleasant or dear for preyas. The ethical-epistemic distinction should not be expanded into a universal prohibition of every desire or enjoyment.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad I.2.1–4, p. 8" }, { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads", "locator": "pp. 372–403" } ] }, { "id": "claim/katha-immortality-atman-brahman", "type": "claim", "label": "Kaṭha's immortality is an ātman-Brahman answer", "summary": "The death response is metaphysically committed: neither neutral cessation of distress nor extended lifespan captures the text's positive Self and Brahman language.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Across I.2.18 and II.3.14–15, the Kaṭha's answer to death is framed through the unborn Self and Brahman, so its immortality cannot be represented as mere longevity or metaphysically neutral cessation.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The text has compositional tensions and uses ātman, puruṣa, and Brahman in ways later schools systematize differently; the Atlas does not force any one later Vedānta school's complete doctrine back into these verses.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad I.2.18; II.3.14–15" }, { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads", "locator": "pp. 372–403" } ] }, { "id": "claim/katha-liberation-desire-knots", "type": "claim", "label": "Kaṭha locates liberation here", "summary": "Immortality is stated at the severing of the heart's desires and knots here on earth, not as a reward of mere longevity.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Kaṭha II.3.14–15 locates liberation 'here': when heart-dwelling desires are released and the knots of the heart are severed, the mortal becomes immortal and attains Brahman.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Sanskrit pramucyante can be rendered released or freed rather than Müller's 'cease,' and hṛdayasya granthayaḥ is often 'knots of the heart' rather than ties. Commentators differ over the precise relation between ātman-realization and Brahman-attainment.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad II.3.14–15 / 6.14–15, p. 23" }, { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads", "locator": "pp. 372–403" } ] }, { "id": "claim/katha-self-unborn-not-ego-survival", "type": "claim", "label": "The unborn Self is not ordinary ego survival", "summary": "The verse's deathless principle cannot be reduced to the indefinite persistence of possessions, biography, or the everyday personality Naciketas has already subordinated.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Kaṭha I.2.18 describes the death-transcending Self-context as unborn, eternal, and uninjured by bodily death; it does not by itself promise indefinite survival of an individual's ordinary personality or biography.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Müller supplies '(Self)' for Sanskrit vipaścin, which modern translators render in different ways. Vedānta traditions also differ over the relation among individual self, supreme Self, and Brahman.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad I.2.18, pp. 10–11" }, { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads", "locator": "pp. 372–403" } ] }, { "id": "claim/leviticus-ger-resident-outsider", "type": "claim", "label": "Leviticus addresses a resident outsider, not simply a guest", "summary": "The law broadens neighbor-love to the vulnerable gēr while preserving a social category different from the passing travelers in Genesis 18.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Leviticus 19:33–34 commands non-oppression, native-like treatment, and love for the gēr living in Israel's land, grounding the obligation in Israel's memory of being gērîm in Egypt.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "English equivalents such as 'resident alien,' 'sojourner,' and 'foreigner' capture different parts of gēr's social position; the category should not be mapped one-to-one onto a passing guest or any single modern immigration status.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Leviticus 19:33–34" }, { "source": "source/jacobson-neighbor", "locator": "pp. 16–26" }, { "source": "source/milgrom-leviticus" } ] }, { "id": "claim/lot-hospitality-morally-complex", "type": "claim", "label": "Lot is not an uncomplicated hospitality exemplar", "summary": "Genesis 19 binds protection of male guests to an offer exposing Lot's daughters to violence; reading only the welcome suppresses the episode's moral cost.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Genesis 19:1–8 narrates both Lot's welcome and protection of visitors and his offer of his daughters to the crowd, so the passage cannot support an unqualified claim that Lot models virtuous hospitality.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The offer itself is undisputed. Debate concerns the crowd's intended violence, the legal background of the encounter, and whether the daughters function as proposed hostages; none removes the narrated danger to them.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 19:1–8" }, { "source": "source/waters-reading-sodom", "note": "Corrective attention to sexual violence against women." }, { "source": "source/morschauser-hospitality-hostages", "note": "Alternative legal-hostage reconstruction." } ] }, { "id": "claim/ludlul-divine-inscrutability", "type": "claim", "label": "Ludlul answers innocent suffering with divine inscrutability, resolved in cult", "summary": "The Babylonian poem concedes that humans cannot know what pleases the gods, and resolves the sufferer's crisis through Marduk's unmerited restoration, not through explanation.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Ludlul bēl nēmeqi responds to undeserved suffering by asserting that divine standards are inscrutable to humans (Tablet II) and by resolving the crisis through Marduk's sovereign restoration of the sufferer rather than through any justification of the suffering.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Interpreters differ on the poem's aim: genuine theological wrestling, an exaltation of Marduk composed for cultic praise, or scribal-curricular didactic — and on how much 'protest' the text really contains compared to Job.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/lambert-bwl", "locator": "Ludlul, introduction and Tablet II" }, { "source": "source/annus-lenzi-ludlul", "note": "Introduction surveys interpretive positions." } ] }, { "id": "claim/manu-sacrifice-renews-humanity", "type": "claim", "label": "Manu's sacrifice generates renewed human life", "summary": "The early Manu account resolves the flood through ritual generation: offerings produce Iḍā, and through her Manu produces a new human race.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 1.8.1.7–11, the sole named human survivor Manu performs a pāka sacrifice because he desires offspring; a woman arises from the offering, is identified as Iḍā, and through her he generates the race of Manu.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The text gives no moral cause for the flood and does not identify the rescuing fish with Viṣṇu or Matsya. Later epic and Purāṇic identifications, additional passengers, and saved seeds belong to the narrative's reception and development, not this passage.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/eggeling-satapatha", "locator": "1.8.1.7–11, pp. 218–219" }, { "source": "source/magnone-deluge", "note": "On the distinct sacrificial and structural logic of the Indian account." }, { "source": "source/vassilkov-indian-mesopotamian-floods", "note": "Counterposition arguing that the ordered motif sequence may reflect assimilated influence; cited as disagreement, not settled history." } ] }, { "id": "claim/marcus-aurelius-accepts-changing-whole", "type": "claim", "label": "Marcus accepts the whole as changing", "summary": "Marcus presents the self as participating in nature’s ongoing transformation.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Meditations 9.19 places the individual's continuous mutation within the changing universe, making change a condition shared by self and whole rather than an exceptional personal disruption.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some interpreters describe this as metaphysical determinism, while others read it as therapeutic rhetoric to strengthen endurance; both agree it is not a doctrine of total control over events.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-meditations-1862", "locator": "Meditations 9.19" }, { "source": "source/hadot-inner-citadel", "locator": "chapter 1" }, { "source": "source/sellars-stoicism", "locator": "chapter 2" } ] }, { "id": "claim/marcus-aurelius-control-within-contribution", "type": "claim", "label": "Marcus frames control as inner contribution", "summary": "Marcus emphasizes self-mastery in regard to judgment, intention, and character rather than outcome domination.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Meditations 4.3, Marcus treats recollection within one's own soul as a refuge available without controlling external location, provided that inner principles are kept ordered.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Commentators differ on whether this is a strict doctrine of moral determinism or a practical exhortation to keep the will in its proper scope; the passage itself foregrounds interior discipline.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-meditations-1862", "locator": "Meditations 4.3" }, { "source": "source/hadot-inner-citadel", "locator": "chapter 2" }, { "source": "source/sellars-stoicism", "locator": "chapter 4" } ] }, { "id": "claim/marcus-aurelius-judgment-shapes-distress", "type": "claim", "label": "Marcus links distress to judgment", "summary": "Book 8.47 presents distress as shaped by internal judgment rather than events alone.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Meditations 8.47, Marcus says that pain caused by an external thing is mediated by one's judgment about it and that this judgment can be removed.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "There is room to debate how universally this applies in Marcus versus contextually in consolation rhetoric, but the passage itself links pathology to interpretation rather than bare circumstance.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-meditations-1862", "locator": "Meditations 8.47" }, { "source": "source/hadot-inner-citadel", "locator": "chapter 3" }, { "source": "source/sellars-stoicism", "locator": "chapter 5" } ] }, { "id": "claim/matthew-active-generosity", "type": "claim", "label": "Matthew 5:40-42 requires costly giving", "summary": "These verses prescribe active generosity rather than passive endurance.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Matthew 5:40–42 portrays nonretaliation as accompanied by active, costly giving in legal and practical encounters, not withdrawal.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some scholars describe these instructions as rhetorical idealization, while others argue they are prescriptive boundary-sensitive ethics that could include prudential limits.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 5:40-42" }, { "source": "source/r-t-france-gospel-of-matthew-nicnt-2007" }, { "source": "source/davies-allison-matthew-icc-volume-1-1988" } ] }, { "id": "claim/matthew-enemy-love-and-prayer", "type": "claim", "label": "Matthew 5:44 extends love and prayer to enemies", "summary": "The command to love and pray for enemies broadens discipleship obligations beyond reciprocated relationships.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Matthew 5:44 explicitly extends love and prayer to enemies and persecutors rather than limiting concern to reciprocal relationships.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars dispute whether this unit is primarily private discipleship training or a public, community-wide program for social conflict in a politicized setting.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 5:43-44" }, { "source": "source/r-t-france-gospel-of-matthew-nicnt-2007" }, { "source": "source/davies-allison-matthew-icc-volume-1-1988" } ] }, { "id": "claim/matthew-nonretaliation", "type": "claim", "label": "Matthew 5:39 rejects personal retaliatory violence", "summary": "The verse is read as a directive against immediate violent retaliation to insults or blows.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Matthew 5:39, Jesus prohibits personal violent retaliation in response to an immediate affront and frames that situation as an opportunity for nonviolent response.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "A core debate concerns ἀντιστῆναι (antistēnai): some interpreters take it as a total renunciation of violent resistance, while others restrict it to retaliation in the personal and legal situations illustrated here. The saying does not itself supply a complete theory of state force.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 5:39" }, { "source": "source/r-t-france-gospel-of-matthew-nicnt-2007" }, { "source": "source/luz-matthew-1-7-hermeneia-2007" } ] }, { "id": "claim/matthew-sun-and-rain-impartiality", "type": "claim", "label": "Matthew 5:45 grounds enemy-love in divine impartiality", "summary": "The sun and rain imagery is used as an argument for concern that crosses moral categories.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Matthew 5:45 points to sun and rain given to both evil and good as the stated rationale for love that extends beyond friends.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Readings differ over whether the meteorological imagery is primarily metaphoric theology of impartiality or a poetic intensification of ethical reciprocity.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 5:45" }, { "source": "source/luz-matthew-1-7-hermeneia-2007" }, { "source": "source/davies-allison-matthew-icc-volume-1-1988" } ] }, { "id": "claim/matthew-sword-relinquish-during-arrest", "type": "claim", "label": "Matthew 26:52 commands immediate disarmament", "summary": "Jesus interrupts active violence by commanding a companion to sheathe his weapon.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Matthew 26:52, Jesus explicitly orders a disciple to put the sword away, signaling refusal to answer arrest pressure with armed escalation.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Later Christian just-war argument does not rest on this text alone: defenders of later force doctrines treat it as a context-specific arrest scene, while broader nonviolent ethics often treat it as paradigmatic for discipleship under immediate coercion.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 26:52" }, { "source": "source/r-t-france-gospel-of-matthew-nicnt-2007", "locator": "commentary on Matthew 26:51–54" } ] }, { "id": "claim/matthew-telos-perfectness", "type": "claim", "label": "Matthew 5:48 closes with a disputed standard of perfection", "summary": "Perfection language frames the preceding ethic through comparison with the heavenly Father rather than reciprocal reward.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Matthew 5:48 closes the sequence by commanding disciples to be perfect as their heavenly Father is perfect.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars disagree over whether “perfect” means eschatological completion, complete mercy in action, or pedagogical maturity, with implications for ethical scope beyond the passage.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 5:48" }, { "source": "source/r-t-france-gospel-of-matthew-nicnt-2007" }, { "source": "source/luz-matthew-1-7-hermeneia-2007" } ] }, { "id": "claim/matthew-voluntary-arrest-and-scripture", "type": "claim", "label": "Matthew 26:53–56 frames the arrest as voluntary fulfillment", "summary": "Jesus’ refusal of miraculous rescue is coupled with a scriptural self-understanding of the arrest.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Matthew 26:53–56 portrays Jesus’ arrest as knowingly embraced, with the immediate arrest scene interpreted as fulfillment of scriptural necessity.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some argue this establishes a general pacifist program; others argue it should be read as narrative theology of passion fulfillment and therefore not by itself a comprehensive rule for every later case of violent conflict.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 26:53-56" }, { "source": "source/r-t-france-gospel-of-matthew-nicnt-2007", "locator": "commentary on Matthew 26:53–56" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mencius-benevolent-rule-people", "type": "claim", "label": "Benevolent rule is judged by the people it governs", "summary": "Mencius links political legitimacy to caring, humane governance that preserves the people’s welfare.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Mencius’s political language, a ruler’s legitimacy is grounded in humane and just administration that benefits the people, rather than in coercive command.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Most readings accept Mencius’s people-centered rhetoric; debates focus on whether this amounts to a procedural doctrine of popular sovereignty or a moralized requirement of rulerly role performance.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "1A:1" }, { "source": "source/pines-everlasting-empire", "locator": "statecraft chapters" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mencius-heaven-mediated-by-people", "type": "claim", "label": "Heaven’s appraisal is mediated through popular moral perception", "summary": "Mencius says Heaven’s seeing and hearing are coterminous with the people’s own seeing and hearing.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Mencius presents political-moral legitimacy as publicly mediated: Heaven’s perspective is effective through the people’s moral perception, making popular well-being a channel for judgment.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars differ on whether this phrase is theological metaphor, proto-political participation language, or a strategic rhetorical move in courtly counsel.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "5A:5" }, { "source": "source/van-norden-mengzi-2008", "locator": "Heaven and popularity" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mencius-profit-righteousness-priority", "type": "claim", "label": "Rulerly counsel is framed by virtue before wealth", "summary": "Mencius restricts his political counsel to benevolence and righteousness and treats profit-seeking as a secondary, insufficient principle of rule.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Mencius presents governance advice as primarily moral and civic in character, prioritizing benevolence and righteousness over profit-seeking goals.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The textual priority is explicit, but interpreters disagree over whether Mencius rejects material benefit itself or rejects profit as the ruler's governing vocabulary and first principle.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "1A:1" }, { "source": "source/van-norden-mengzi-2008", "locator": "Mencius as text" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mencius-tyrant-loses-ruler-status", "type": "claim", "label": "A tyrant can forfeit the moral status of ruler", "summary": "Mencius recategorizes the violent and unrighteous ruler as a mere fellow, allowing Zhou's killing to be described without calling it regicide.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Mencius argues that a ruler who destroys benevolence and righteousness can become a 'mere fellow,' so the killing of Zhou is not classified as putting a sovereign to death.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars debate whether this amounts to a right of justified rebellion, a retrospective legitimation of dynastic overthrow, or a moral vocabulary whose political exercise remains restricted to qualified ministers.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "1B:8" }, { "source": "source/pines-everlasting-empire", "locator": "political legitimacy" }, { "source": "source/van-norden-mengzi-2008", "locator": "ruler accountability" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mill-happiness-standard", "type": "claim", "label": "Mill defines happiness as the moral standard", "summary": "Mill presents happiness as the normative standard for determining right and wrong actions.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In *Utilitarianism*, Mill states that happiness—pleasure and the absence of pain—is the ultimate standard of right and wrong.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Debate focuses on whether Mill means purely psychological happiness or a broader evaluative notion shaped by social and moral capacities.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "locator": "Ch. 2" }, { "source": "source/donner-fumerton-mill", "locator": "Interpretive chapter on utility" }, { "source": "source/crisp-routledge-utilitarianism", "locator": "Core principle section" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mill-impartiality-equal-consideration", "type": "claim", "label": "Mill requires impartial consideration in utility", "summary": "Mill’s utilitarian standard counts each person’s happiness without privileging status or class in principle.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Mill’s principle requires impartial consideration of persons: each individual’s happiness counts as one in calculating moral rightness.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some contemporary critics argue that Mill’s practical writings allow procedural qualifications, especially where fairness, rights, or legal institutions alter strict numerical aggregation.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "locator": "Ch. 5" }, { "source": "source/donner-fumerton-mill", "locator": "Impartiality discussion" }, { "source": "source/driver-history-utilitarianism", "locator": "Equality and aggregation" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mill-justice-rights-utility", "type": "claim", "label": "Mill derives rights and justice from utility", "summary": "Mill treats justice and rights as principles grounded in utility.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Mill treats justice and rights as utility-based principles: they are socially required because violating them produces greater and more stable harms than their observance.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readers argue Mill’s account makes rights derivative and revisable, while others hold that justice constrains utility in a stronger sense than Mill’s own language sometimes allows.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "locator": "Ch. 4–5" }, { "source": "source/mill-on-liberty-1859", "locator": "Ch. 5" }, { "source": "source/driver-history-utilitarianism", "locator": "Rights chapter" }, { "source": "source/crisp-routledge-utilitarianism", "locator": "Mill on rights" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mill-liberty-harm-principle", "type": "claim", "label": "Mill’s Harm Principle limits justified coercion", "summary": "Mill’s Liberty centers coercion on preventing harm to others.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Mill’s harm principle allows social or legal coercion only to prevent harm to others, not merely to prevent self-regarding damage.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Later readers debate how broadly to interpret ‘harm,’ especially for indirect social harms, paternalism, and collective risk contexts.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-on-liberty-1859", "locator": "Ch. 1" }, { "source": "source/donner-fumerton-mill", "locator": "Harm principle interpretation" }, { "source": "source/crisp-routledge-utilitarianism", "locator": "Section on self-regarding acts" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mill-qualitative-pleasures", "type": "claim", "label": "Mill distinguishes higher and lower pleasures", "summary": "Mill argues that some pleasures are qualitatively superior.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Mill distinguishes higher and lower pleasures in moral reasoning, assigning higher value to intellectual and moral pleasures when competent judges prefer them.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "A major criticism is that the competence of judges can itself embed classed and cultural assumptions, a point modern scholarship treats as a genuine tension in Mill’s account.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "locator": "Ch. 2" }, { "source": "source/driver-history-utilitarianism", "locator": "Chapter on Mill’s refinements" }, { "source": "source/crisp-routledge-utilitarianism", "locator": "Qualitative utilitarianism" } ] }, { "id": "claim/mill-rightness-independent-motive", "type": "claim", "label": "Mill links rightness to utility rather than motive", "summary": "Mill’s criterion of rightness is tied to consequences, not motive alone.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Mill states that an action is right insofar as it tends to promote happiness, and wrong insofar as it tends to the opposite, with motive treated as distinct from this core criterion.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The interpretive issue is whether Mill’s separation of rightness and motive is complete, or whether motive remains morally relevant through secondary rules and justice constraints.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "locator": "Ch. 2; Ch. 5" }, { "source": "source/donner-fumerton-mill", "locator": "Consequentialist reading" }, { "source": "source/crisp-routledge-utilitarianism", "locator": "Rightness and motive" } ] }, { "id": "claim/naciketas-refuses-finite-rewards", "type": "claim", "label": "Naciketas refuses substitutes for knowing death", "summary": "Long life and abundance remain under Yama's rule, so they cannot answer the question that brought Naciketas to Death.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Kaṭha I.1.26–29 depicts Naciketas rejecting wealth, long life, sensual pleasure, and Yama's alternative boons because they are transient, while insisting on knowledge of the disputed hereafter.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Verse 28 is textually and philologically obscure in Müller's notes, but the refusal in verses 26–27 and renewed death question in verse 29 are clear across the sequence.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad I.1.26–29, pp. 6–7" }, { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads", "locator": "pp. 372–403" } ] }, { "id": "claim/nibbana-fire-dependence-not-destination", "type": "claim", "label": "The quenched-fire simile concerns exhausted dependence", "summary": "A fire without fuel has not traveled to a compass point; the analogy diagnoses the conditions and categories presupposed by the question.", "status": "draft", "statement": "MN 72 uses fire's dependence on grass and logs to explain why, once sustaining conditions are exhausted, asking where the quenched fire went does not apply.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The analogy has been read as extinction, semantic inapplicability, or a culturally specific fire/fuel model in which quenching does not map neatly onto modern existence-versus-nonexistence. It should not be made to prove either materialist annihilation or an eternal hidden consciousness.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-mn72", "locator": "MN 72:19.1–20.20" }, { "source": "source/collins-nirvana", "locator": "pp. 29–60" }, { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "locator": "pp. 74–79" } ] }, { "id": "claim/nibbana-in-life-retains-feeling", "type": "claim", "label": "Awakening does not remove bodily feeling", "summary": "The living perfected person still has functioning senses and feels pleasure and pain; greed, hate, delusion, and relish have ended.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Iti 44 says that the liberated person with residue continues to experience agreeable and disagreeable sensations and pleasure and pain while greed, hate, and delusion have ended.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The wording is explicit, but Buddhist traditions analyze the relation among bare feeling, affective reaction, and appropriation differently; the passage cannot support the popular claim that an arahant becomes physically insensible.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-iti44", "locator": "Iti 44:3.2–3.5" }, { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "locator": "pp. 74–79" } ] }, { "id": "claim/nibbana-neither-eternal-self-nor-annihilation", "type": "claim", "label": "The Buddhist middle is not half a surviving self", "summary": "SN 44.10 treats survival and annihilation as opposed conclusions sharing the premise of a substantial self that must persist or be destroyed.", "status": "draft", "statement": "SN 44.10 refuses both eternalist survival and annihilationist non-survival because affirming either would preserve Vacchagotta's mistaken substantial-self framing.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Sujato reads the compressed atthattā and natthattā temporally as whether the self survives; many older translations render 'is there a self?' and 'is there no self?' The pedagogical explanation is explicit, but the passage alone is not a complete ontology of final nibbāna.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sn44-10", "locator": "SN 44.10:1.3–2.9" }, { "source": "source/collins-nirvana", "locator": "pp. 29–60" } ] }, { "id": "claim/nibbana-postmortem-predicates-inapplicable", "type": "claim", "label": "MN 72 refuses all four postmortem predicates", "summary": "The discourse says reborn, not reborn, both, and neither do not apply, rather than selecting a hidden fifth answer about a surviving personal entity.", "status": "draft", "statement": "MN 72 rejects the full fourfold scheme of describing a liberated person after death as reborn, not reborn, both, or neither.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Sujato translates upapajjati as 'is reborn,' while other translators use 'reappears' or 'arises.' Scholars read the refusal as semantic inapplicability, pragmatic avoidance of speculative views, or apophatic indication of an unconditioned reality; the text does not explicitly affirm an eternal surviving subject.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-mn72", "locator": "MN 72:16.1–20.20" }, { "source": "source/collins-nirvana", "locator": "pp. 29–60" }, { "source": "source/harvey-selfless-mind", "locator": "chapters 11–13" }, { "source": "source/gethin-review-selfless-mind", "locator": "pp. 76–78" } ] }, { "id": "claim/nibbana-two-elements-one-liberation", "type": "claim", "label": "The two nibbāna elements are not two destinations", "summary": "Iti 44 distinguishes awakening while alive from final nibbāna when that life ends; both describe the same liberation under different remaining conditions.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Itivuttaka 44 distinguishes nibbāna with residue during the perfected person's life from nibbāna without residue when all states of renewed existence cease.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Later Theravāda commonly identifies the residue with the living arahant's remaining aggregates, while scholars debate whether upādi is best explained as residue, substrate, acquisition, clinging, or fuel and how much later systematization is already present in the discourse.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-iti44", "locator": "Iti 44:2.1–5.6" }, { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "locator": "pp. 74–79" }, { "source": "source/collins-nirvana", "locator": "pp. 29–60" } ] }, { "id": "claim/paul-death-destroyed", "type": "claim", "label": "Paul treats death as an enemy to destroy", "summary": "Liberation is not reconciliation with death as a natural release; the chapter imagines mortality itself defeated through resurrection and transformation.", "status": "draft", "statement": "First Corinthians 15 calls death the last enemy and depicts its defeat when the dead are raised incorruptible and the mortal puts on immortality.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The textual claim is explicit, but Christian interpreters disagree over the timing and scope of resurrection, the intermediate state, and whether 'all' in Adam and Christ implies universal salvation.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:20–26, 51–55" }, { "source": "source/cook-enspirited-body" } ] }, { "id": "claim/paul-resurrection-christ-pattern", "type": "claim", "label": "Christ's resurrection patterns a future resurrection", "summary": "Firstfruits means beginning and pledge: Paul's answer is corporate and eschatological rather than only an account of one exceptional survivor.", "status": "draft", "statement": "First Corinthians 15:20–23 makes Christ's resurrection the firstfruits and pattern of the future resurrection of those who belong to Christ.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The passage explicitly links Christ and believers, but historians and theologians disagree over the nature of the event Paul believed occurred, the continuity of the raised body, and how the chapter relates to later Christian afterlife doctrines.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:20–23" }, { "source": "source/cook-enspirited-body" } ] }, { "id": "claim/paul-spiritual-body-transformed", "type": "claim", "label": "Spiritual body does not simply mean no body", "summary": "Paul's paired contrasts describe transformed resurrection embodiment; the phrase cannot safely be reduced either to an unchanged corpse or to an immaterial ghost.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In 1 Corinthians 15:42–44, sōma pneumatikon remains a sōma within contrasts of corruption and incorruption, dishonor and glory, and weakness and power, so the passage describes transformed embodiment rather than simple abandonment of body.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars debate the material composition, continuity, and animating principle of Paul's resurrection body. Cook argues that an entirely nonphysical reading is unwarranted while retaining the phrase's unresolved precision.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:42–44" }, { "source": "source/cook-enspirited-body" }, { "source": "source/martin-corinthian-body" } ] }, { "id": "claim/phaedo-affinity-not-proof", "type": "claim", "label": "Affinity does not yet prove imperishability", "summary": "Resemblance to intelligible and immortal realities is one stage in the dialogue, not the last word after Cebes' objection.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Phaedo's affinity argument makes the soul more like intelligible and indissoluble reality than the body, but it does not by itself establish that every soul is imperishable; Cebes' later objection forces a further argument.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Lorenz emphasizes the inferential shortfall, while Ebrey's reconstruction treats the kinship argument more favorably. The dialogue itself marks the pressure through qualified language at 80b–c and Cebes' weaver objection at 87b–88b.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "locator": "Phaedo 78b–84b; 87b–88b; 102a–107b" }, { "source": "source/lorenz-ancient-soul", "locator": "§3.1" }, { "source": "source/ebrey-phaedo", "locator": "chapters 6 and 10" } ] }, { "id": "claim/phaedo-defines-death-as-separation", "type": "claim", "label": "Phaedo defines death as soul-body separation", "summary": "The dialogue begins from a separable-soul model rather than treating death only as cessation of bodily function.", "status": "draft", "statement": "At Phaedo 64c Plato's Socrates defines death as the completed separation of soul and body.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The wording is explicit; debate concerns whether the dialogue's strong soul-body contrast is Plato's unqualified anthropology or a position shaped by this dialogue's dramatic and argumentative purpose.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "locator": "Phaedo 64c" }, { "source": "source/ebrey-phaedo", "locator": "chapter 3" }, { "source": "source/lorenz-ancient-soul", "locator": "§3.1" } ] }, { "id": "claim/phaedo-myth-not-exact-cartography", "type": "claim", "label": "Phaedo qualifies its afterlife cartography", "summary": "The closing story sustains ethical hope while refusing full confidence that the soul's mansions have been described exactly.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Phaedo 114c–d associates philosophical purification with bodiless postmortem life while explicitly declining certainty that the myth's description of the soul's destinations is exactly true.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Readers differ over which core commitments the dialogue asks them to affirm and which geographic details are pedagogical myth; 114d rules out presenting every feature as literal settled cosmology.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "locator": "Phaedo 107c–115a" }, { "source": "source/ebrey-phaedo", "locator": "chapter 11" } ] }, { "id": "claim/phaedo-practices-death-not-suicide", "type": "claim", "label": "Practicing death is not a license for suicide", "summary": "Philosophical purification loosens bodily domination within life, while Socrates says a person must wait for the god's summons.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Phaedo's practice of dying means philosophical purification and loosening bodily domination, not self-killing: 61e–62c requires waiting until the god summons, while 67c–e defines the practice as soul-body separation pursued within life.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars debate the strength of the dialogue's body-negativity and its desire to be dead, but the prohibition on converting philosophical preparation into a general permission for suicide is textually explicit.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "locator": "Phaedo 61e–62c; 64a–69e" }, { "source": "source/ebrey-phaedo", "locator": "chapter 3" } ] }, { "id": "claim/plato-justification-defines-justice-as-functional-order", "type": "claim", "label": "Plato defines justice through functional order", "summary": "Plato construes justice as a bounded order where each part performs its own proper work.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Books IV and II-III, Plato's Socratic argument construes justice as the condition in which each social and psychic part does what it is suited to do without usurping others' roles.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The exact mapping between civic classes and psychic faculties is contested, but the passage's functional structure is central to his argument in this section.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "locator": "Republic 433a-b" }, { "source": "source/annas-introduction-platos-republic-1981", "locator": "discussion of justice and civic analogy" } ] }, { "id": "claim/plato-requires-philosopher-kingly-rule-for-rest", "type": "claim", "label": "Plato requires philosopher-kingly rule for stable justice", "summary": "Plato frames philosopher-king rule as a condition for durable political peace.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Plato argues that stable justice for the city requires either philosopher rulers in office or ruling elites transformed to be philosophical and good.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Debate remains over whether this is a literal constitutional proposal or an educational-provocation embedded in a pedagogical design for elites.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "locator": "Republic 473c-d" }, { "source": "source/schofield-plato-political-philosophy-2006", "locator": "Book VII and final book conclusions" } ] }, { "id": "claim/plato-rules-by-knowledge-tension-authority", "type": "claim", "label": "Republic articulates a knowledge-authority tension", "summary": "Plato ties legitimate rule to philosophical knowledge in a way that challenges the authority of existing rulers.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Republic 473c-d makes philosophical knowledge a condition of adequate rule while requiring existing rulers or philosophers to undergo a radical change in political role.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars disagree over whether philosopher-rule is a literal institutional proposal, a deliberately paradoxical thought experiment, or an educational ideal for judging defective regimes.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "locator": "Republic 473c-d" }, { "source": "source/annas-introduction-platos-republic-1981", "locator": "introductory framing on education and politics" }, { "source": "source/schofield-plato-political-philosophy-2006", "locator": "interpretation of the city-soul analogy" } ] }, { "id": "claim/pyrrhonism-equipollence-motivates-suspension", "type": "claim", "label": "Pyrrhonian equipollence triggers ἐποχή", "summary": "Pyrrhonism treats opposed arguments of equal force as the mechanism that triggers suspension.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sextus says the skeptical method works by opposing reasoned claims against one another so that the balances are equal in strength (ἰσοσθένεια τῶν λόγων), and that equilibrium is what precedes suspension.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some interpreters (including Bett and Perin) describe ἰσοσθένεια as a practical discipline of equal-opposite inquiry, while others read it as a textual reconstruction of what a skeptic does strategically in argument, not as a strict logical parity condition.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "locator": "Book I, sections 8–10" }, { "source": "source/bett-pyrrho-legacy" }, { "source": "source/perin-demands-reason" } ] }, { "id": "claim/pyrrhonism-follows-appearances", "type": "claim", "label": "Pyrrhonism continues practical life by appearance", "summary": "Pyrrhonian suspension does not require denial of appearances for everyday action.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sextus says Pyrrhonists do not deny how things appear; they question assertions that an object is as it appears while continuing ordinary life through appearances, natural capacities, feelings, customs, and learned arts.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some scholarship construes this as a limited practical ethic of survival, while others read it as a fuller account of normative guidance without dogmatic belief; both rely on the same textual distinction between appearances and assertions about appearances.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "locator": "Book I, sections 19–24" }, { "source": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus" }, { "source": "source/perin-demands-reason" } ] }, { "id": "claim/pyrrhonism-inquiry-remains-open", "type": "claim", "label": "Pyrrhonism keeps inquiry open after suspension", "summary": "Suspension does not replace dogma with a rival doctrine, but leaves non-dogmatic inquiry in place.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sextus characterizes the skeptic as an inquirer and presents skeptical formulations as self-applying rather than fixed dogmas, leaving investigation open instead of converting suspension into a settled doctrine.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Secondary interpreters dispute whether this openness is intended as a permanent intellectual commitment, an interim ethical therapy, or a rhetorical way to avoid claiming a stronger philosophical system; the passages support all three as plausible readings depending on how one models skepticism.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "locator": "Book I, sections 1–3 and 13–15" }, { "source": "source/bett-pyrrho-legacy" }, { "source": "source/perin-demands-reason" } ] }, { "id": "claim/pyrrhonism-suspends-judgment", "type": "claim", "label": "Pyrrhonism uses epoché as its immediate skeptical outcome", "summary": "The Outlines describe suspension of judgment as the first result of Pyrrhonian skeptical confrontation.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Book I of the Outlines of Pyrrhonism, Sextus identifies the initial outcome of skeptical opposition as ἐποχή (suspension of judgment).", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Perin and Vogt both highlight that readers disagree on whether ἐποχή is the ultimate state of Pyrrhonism or a recurring methodological stance inside an ongoing process rather than a final settlement.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "locator": "Book I, sections 8–10" }, { "source": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus" }, { "source": "source/perin-demands-reason" } ] }, { "id": "claim/pyrrhonism-tranquility-follows-suspension", "type": "claim", "label": "Pyrrhonian tranquillity is tied to the skeptical procedure", "summary": "Pyrrhonism describes ἀταραξία as connected to, but debated as to the exact logical role of, ἐποχή.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In the Outlines, skepticism is introduced as beginning from the hope of attaining ἀταραξία, and the text presents ἐποχή and ἀταραξία in sequence.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars disagree whether ἀταραξία is the primary telos, a downstream causal result of sustained suspension, or a retrospective explanatory gloss for the skeptic's stable practice; these interpretations are explicit in secondary literature and partially visible in how Sextus deploys the passage.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "locator": "Book I, section 12" }, { "source": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus" }, { "source": "source/bett-pyrrho-legacy" }, { "source": "source/perin-demands-reason" } ] }, { "id": "claim/quran-abraham-hospitality-example", "type": "claim", "label": "The Qur'an presents Abraham's hospitality as narrative example", "summary": "The honoured-guest episode preserves prompt greeting and abundant food, but should not be mistaken for the separate hadith and juristic rules governing a guest's stay.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Qur'an 51:24–27 calls Abraham's visitors honoured guests and depicts him promptly providing a fatted calf before he understands why they do not eat.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The narrative content is explicit. Its relationship to the Genesis account belongs to a wider Abrahamic reception history whose oral, written, and late-antique pathways cannot be recovered from shared plot alone; it is not a self-executing universal three-day hospitality statute.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "Qur'an 51:24–27" }, { "source": "source/saritoprak-welcoming-stranger", "locator": "pp. 72–81", "note": "On Abrahamic hospitality and Islamic reception." } ] }, { "id": "claim/quran-job-patient-exemplar", "type": "claim", "label": "The Qur'anic Job is an exemplar of ṣabr, without the protest dialogues", "summary": "Six verses distill the Job tradition into a model of steadfast patience: affliction, a single restrained appeal, divine verdict 'We found him steadfast,' and restoration.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Qur'an presents Job (Ayyūb) in six verses (21:83–84; 38:41–44) as an exemplar of steadfast patience (ṣabr) under trial, and contains none of the extended protest dialogues that dominate the biblical book.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The textual claim is undisputed. Debated: whether the Qur'an presupposes its audience's familiarity with fuller Job narratives (biblical or oral), and how much of the later 'patient Job' piety reads tafsīr tradition back into the verses.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "21:83–84; 38:41–44" }, { "source": "source/johns-quranic-job" } ] }, { "id": "claim/stoic-apatheia-not-numbness", "type": "claim", "label": "Stoic apatheia is not emotional numbness", "summary": "Stoic freedom from passion targets excessive impulses grounded in false value judgments; rational good feelings and active care remain possible.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Stoic moral psychology apatheia is freedom from pathē—disordered passions tied to false judgments—not the absence of all affect, since the tradition recognizes rational good feelings and appropriate social action.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The technical doctrine belongs to wider Stoicism and should not be presented as if the term apatheia occurred in Encheiridion 1–2. Scholars debate the continuity between earlier Stoic emotion theory and Epictetus's educational emphases.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/graver-stoicism-emotion" }, { "source": "source/graver-sep-epictetus", "locator": "§4.5" } ] }, { "id": "claim/stoic-externals-preferred-not-good", "type": "claim", "label": "Stoicism treats external goods as preferred but not decisive", "summary": "Stoic writers allow that health and wealth can help life go well without making them moral ends.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Stoicism classifies health, wealth, and reputation as preferred externals: useful for living well, but not moral goods that determine happiness by themselves.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars disagree over how far this non-good status is strict versus pragmatic, and whether Epictetus consistently treats some externals as morally irrelevant in all contexts.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/durand-shogry-baltzly-stoicism" }, { "source": "source/inwood-ethics-human-action-stoicism" } ] }, { "id": "claim/stoic-virtue-sufficient-flourishing", "type": "claim", "label": "Stoic ethics treats virtue as sufficient for flourishing", "summary": "The Stoic thesis ties happiness directly to moral character, not a bundle of external goods.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In Stoicism, virtue is said to be both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia, so a life can be good even without favorable external circumstances.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "This is contested by interpreters who argue the tradition is less absolute than classical summaries suggest, because health and social stability still shape practical ability to express virtue in public life.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/durand-shogry-baltzly-stoicism" }, { "source": "source/inwood-ethics-human-action-stoicism" } ] }, { "id": "claim/sutrakritanga-carefulness-is-practical-discipline", "type": "claim", "label": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga makes carefulness a practical discipline", "summary": "Carefulness is expressed through movement, food, possession, speech, and refusing injury—not through intention alone.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga I.10 connects carefulness with giving no offense in movement, allowed food, treating beings as oneself, ceasing injury, and not employing others to harm.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The lecture addresses an ascetic ideal whose full observance is role-specific; lay aṇuvratas pursue non-harm through less absolute constraints.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga I.10 §§1–10" }, { "source": "source/long-jainism-introduction" }, { "source": "source/cort-jains-in-the-world" } ] }, { "id": "claim/sutrakritanga-intention-does-not-exhaust-harm", "type": "claim", "label": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga does not reduce harm to avowed intention", "summary": "Its activity debate considers mind, speech, body, cruelty, negligence, and formed hostility rather than making one mental state the sole criterion.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga II.4 argues that sin is not erased merely because an agent does not consciously consider the operations of mind, speech, and body, while its murderer example also treats a formed hostile resolution as morally consequential.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The disputant structure and Jacobi's difficult translation make the passage unsafe as a simple slogan. Jain philosophers distinguish material harm from passionate or negligent states in ways that cannot be reconstructed from these four sections alone.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga II.4 §§1–4" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" }, { "source": "source/tahtinen-ahimsa" } ] }, { "id": "claim/sutrakritanga-killing-causing-consenting-bind", "type": "claim", "label": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga treats killing, causing, and consent as binding", "summary": "The doctrine passage refuses to confine violence to the hand that performs the killing.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga I.1.1 says that killing living beings, causing others to kill, and consenting to their killing increase the agent's iniquity and bondage.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Later Jain analyses distinguish intention, carelessness, passions, and material injury in greater detail; this verse provides a broad agency frame rather than a complete taxonomy of karmic intensity.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga I.1.1 §§2–5" }, { "source": "source/dundas-jains" } ] }, { "id": "claim/sutta-nipata-boundless-compassion", "type": "claim", "label": "Snp 1.8 uses the mother analogy for boundless loving-kindness", "summary": "The text uses the mother/only-child image and directional imagery to define all-sided loving concern.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sutta Nipāta 1.8 teaches a boundless heart through the image of a mother protecting her only child and by directing love to the entire world: above, below, all around, unconstricted, and without enmity.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "These are canonical ethical-poetic instructions; later Buddhist communities have interpreted loving-kindness discourse in different practical ways, so they are not equivalent to a single historical policy position.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "locator": "snp1.8:7.1–8.4" }, { "source": "source/jerryson-juergensmeyer-buddhist-warfare", "note": "Comparative essays document Buddhist communities interpreting compassion and non-harm differently under different political pressures." } ] }, { "id": "claim/sutta-nipata-inner-dart-sustains-agitation", "type": "claim", "label": "Snp 4.15 turns from public conflict to the inner dart", "summary": "The discourse does not stop at condemning weapons; it identifies a difficult-to-see inner dart whose removal ends frantic agitation.", "status": "draft", "statement": "After describing armed conflict and social turmoil, Sutta Nipāta 4.15 locates a hard-to-see dart in the heart and says that removing it ends restless running and sinking down.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The dart can be read as craving, attachment, or a wider complex of affliction. In every case, the passage moves toward renunciant transformation and should not be reduced to a stand-alone program of political pacifism.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "locator": "snp4.15:4.3–5.4" }, { "source": "source/jerryson-juergensmeyer-buddhist-warfare", "note": "Used to guard against projecting a single renunciant passage over diverse Buddhist political histories." } ] }, { "id": "claim/sutta-nipata-no-wished-pain-under-provocation", "type": "claim", "label": "Snp 1.8 rejects wishing pain under provocation", "summary": "The text directly links provocation with refraining from wishing pain on others.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sutta Nipāta 1.8 explicitly instructs that even when provoked or aggrieved, one should not wish pain for another person.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The injunction is unambiguous in this verse sequence, but it does not by itself settle Buddhist responses to collective violence or political defense.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "locator": "snp1.8:6.3–6.4" }, { "source": "source/bartholomeusz-in-defense-of-dharma", "note": "Historical Buddhist just-war arguments in Sri Lanka show that later political thought can allow conflict under strict conditions." } ] }, { "id": "claim/sutta-nipata-taking-up-arms-peril", "type": "claim", "label": "Snp 4.15 links taking up arms with peril", "summary": "The passage opens by identifying armedness as a source of peril in communal life.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sutta Nipāta 4.15 states that peril stems from those who take up arms, describing social life among such actors as conflict and turmoil.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The verse describes social peril within its context, not a total doctrinal ban on all violence; scholars of Buddhist history identify counterexamples where warfare was justified through other doctrinal or political arguments.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "locator": "snp4.15:1.1–3.4" }, { "source": "source/bartholomeusz-in-defense-of-dharma", "note": "Provides evidence of Buddhist just-war arguments in later Sri Lankan contexts.", "locator": "Dharma and war arguments in Buddhist Sri Lanka" } ] }, { "id": "claim/sutta-nipata-universal-welfare", "type": "claim", "label": "Snp 1.8 extends welfare to all beings", "summary": "The verse includes an explicit universal welfare injunction spanning visible and invisible creatures across size, status, and temporal condition.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Sutta Nipāta 1.8 instructs practitioners to wish happiness and safety for all living beings, including beings already born and those about to be born, without leaving any out.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The passage is clear as monastic ethical instruction, but scholars caution that this universal sentiment does not by itself define all Buddhist political, legal, or military traditions.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "locator": "snp1.8:4.1–5.4" }, { "source": "source/bartholomeusz-in-defense-of-dharma", "note": "Use-of-force debates in Sri Lankan Buddhism show wider historical variation than this renunciant verse sequence captures." } ] }, { "id": "claim/tanha-origin-not-all-desire", "type": "claim", "label": "Taṇhā is not every form of desire", "summary": "The second noble truth targets appropriative craving; Buddhist vocabulary can also describe wholesome intention and motivation, so 'Buddhism says eliminate all desire' is too broad.", "status": "draft", "statement": "SN 56.11 identifies taṇhā—sensual craving, craving for continued existence, and craving for nonexistence—as the origin of dukkha, while early Buddhist usage also permits chanda to name wholesome desire-to-act.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Translations vary between 'craving' and 'desire,' and bhava-taṇhā is rendered as craving for existence, continued existence, or becoming. The distinction from chanda does not make every occurrence of chanda wholesome; context determines its valence.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sn56-11", "locator": "SN 56.11:4.3–4.5" }, { "source": "source/harvey-introduction-buddhism", "locator": "p. 63" }, { "source": "source/sangiacomo-buddhist-craving", "locator": "§2.2" } ] }, { "id": "claim/tanha-sustains-renewed-existence", "type": "claim", "label": "The second noble truth includes renewed existence", "summary": "Craving is not merely a modern psychology of dissatisfaction: the sutta places it inside a rebirth-and-cessation framework that a secular paraphrase can silently erase.", "status": "draft", "statement": "SN 56.11 describes taṇhā as leading to future lives and includes cravings for sensual pleasure, continued existence, and nonexistence, so its diagnosis is simultaneously psychological and soteriological.", "epistemicStatus": "fact", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The rebirth frame is explicit in Sujato's rendering. Debate concerns how bhava and vibhava should be translated and philosophically interpreted, not whether the passage names a threefold craving within the origin of dukkha.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sn56-11", "locator": "SN 56.11:4.3–4.5" }, { "source": "source/sangiacomo-buddhist-craving", "locator": "§2.2" } ] }, { "id": "claim/thrasymachus-defines-justice-as-stronger-interest", "type": "claim", "label": "Thrasymachus defines justice as the stronger's advantage", "summary": "In Book I, Thrasymachus advances a bounded claim that justice functions as an index of dominance.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Thrasymachus explicitly defines justice as the interest of the stronger, presenting it as a political-theoretical reduction rather than a moral ideal.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some interpreters treat this as a stylized dramatization of a rival position and not Plato's own endorsement, but the text marks it as Thrasymachus's contention.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "locator": "Republic 338c" }, { "source": "source/schofield-plato-political-philosophy-2006", "locator": "discussion of Book I antagonism" } ] }, { "id": "claim/two-arrows-distinction", "type": "claim", "label": "The two-arrows teaching splits pain from added suffering", "summary": "SN 36.6 distinguishes unavoidable bodily pain (the first arrow) from the mental anguish added by one's reaction (the second arrow), which training can remove.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Salla Sutta (SN 36.6) teaches that bodily pain strikes the awakened and unawakened alike, but the additional mental suffering generated by one's reaction to pain is contingent and can be eliminated through practice — reframing the problem of suffering from 'why me?' to 'what am I adding?'.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Uncontested as a description of the teaching; discussions concern how this psychological analysis interacts with karmic explanations of why particular painful feelings arise at all.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/thanissaro-sn36-6", "locator": "SN 36.6" }, { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "locator": "ch. 2–3" } ] }, { "id": "claim/uttaradhyayana-actions-remain-ones-own", "type": "claim", "label": "Uttarādhyayana denies that relations absorb one's harmful action", "summary": "The lecture links careless killing with personal accountability when the fruit of action is reaped.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Uttarādhyayana Lecture 4 says that careless killers cannot rely on wealth or relations for protection and that relations do not take an agent's place when the fruit of action is reaped.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "This is a karmic and ascetic accountability claim, not a denial that social structures influence violence or that communities bear other forms of responsibility.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Uttarādhyayana, Lecture 4, §§1–4" }, { "source": "source/dundas-jains" } ] }, { "id": "claim/uttaradhyayana-nonharm-requires-attention", "type": "claim", "label": "Uttarādhyayana operationalizes non-harm as attention", "summary": "The samitis and guptis regulate walking, speech, alms, objects, waste, thought, and bodily action to reduce injury.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Uttarādhyayana Lecture 24 presents five samitis and three guptis as disciplines that prevent thought, speech, and body from causing misery or destruction to living beings.", "epistemicStatus": "tradition", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The detailed rules describe well-disciplined monks. Their values inform wider Jain ethics, but the great-vow/lesser-vow distinction means the same operational burden is not assigned identically to householders.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Uttarādhyayana, Lecture 24, §§1–8, 20–26" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" }, { "source": "source/cort-jains-in-the-world" } ] }, { "id": "claim/xenia-ritualized-reciprocity", "type": "claim", "label": "Xenia is ritualized reciprocity, not generic kindness", "summary": "Homeric welcome includes divine protection and care for vulnerable arrivals, but it also belongs to a status-aware economy of gifts, escort, obligation, and potentially inherited guest-friendship.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Odyssey represents xenia through recurring sequences of reception, food before inquiry, gifts or escort, reciprocal obligation, and divine sanction; it is therefore more specific than undifferentiated kindness to everyone.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Reece's type-scene analysis identifies a large recurrent sequence, but poetic convention is not a complete ethnography of Greek practice. Eumaeus's welcome of disguised Odysseus also prevents reducing Homeric hospitality to elite peer diplomacy alone.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/murray-odyssey", "locator": "Odyssey 1.120–124; 9.266–271; 14.56–59" }, { "source": "source/reece-strangers-welcome" }, { "source": "source/herman-ritualised-friendship" } ] }, { "id": "claim/zhuangzi-accepts-transformation", "type": "claim", "label": "Zhuangzi affirms continual transformation over fixed essence", "summary": "Transformation is not an aberration to suppress but the ordinary texture of life and worlds.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Zhuangzi presents human life and the natural world through biànhuà (transformation), emphasizing changing forms and relational unfolding rather than defending a fixed personal essence.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Interpretive tension remains over whether this language implies ontological anti-essentialism only, or also moral endorsement of all transformation without discernment; the latter is generally rejected by scholars as a misread.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Book VI, paragraph 6 (Legge)" }, { "source": "source/ziporyn-zhuangzi-essential" }, { "source": "source/roth-zhuangzi" } ] }, { "id": "claim/zhuangzi-free-wandering-loosens-attachment", "type": "claim", "label": "Free and Easy Wandering loosens clinging", "summary": "The free-wandering motif is therapeutic, training response away from possessive clinging, not toward withdrawal from action.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Xiaoyao you chapter contrasts beings constrained by limited capacities and reputation with wandering that is not dependent on ordinary measures of success, usefulness, or fixed social identity.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readers frame this as mystical contemplation, others as ethical pedagogy for worldly life; both agree it targets attachment and compulsive self-grasping rather than action itself.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Book I (Legge)" }, { "source": "source/ziporyn-zhuangzi-essential" }, { "source": "source/roth-zhuangzi" } ] }, { "id": "claim/zhuangzi-language-cannot-fix-all-distinctions", "type": "claim", "label": "Zhuangzi exposes limits of fixed naming", "summary": "Naming and distinction are pragmatic tools for humans, but Zhuangzi resists making language ontologically exhaustive.", "status": "draft", "statement": "Zhuangzi treats names and distinction-making as human practices whose repeated use can establish a path, but denies that argument and fixed naming can exhaust the Way or finally settle every opposition.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Scholars disagree whether this is primarily a linguistic point (about names) or a social-political point (about classificatory domination), while converging that the text warns against treating verbal distinctions as final reality.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Book II, paragraphs 3–7 (Legge)" }, { "source": "source/ziporyn-zhuangzi-essential" }, { "source": "source/roth-zhuangzi" } ] }, { "id": "claim/zhuangzi-perspectives-remain-partial", "type": "claim", "label": "Zhuangzi treats perspective as bounded and revisable", "summary": "Zhuangzi frames perspective-taking as conditional and non-final, not as universal grasp.", "status": "draft", "statement": "In the Qiwulun chapter, Zhuangzi presents judgments of what is fitting, right, and beautiful as conditioned by standpoint, while also questioning whether any one formulation can serve as a final account of the Way.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "Some readers describe this as a general relativism claim, while others interpret it as a discipline of practical non-clutching to one conceptual frame; the strongest reading is that Zhuangzi withholds final authority at the level of viewpoint rather than denying all discriminations.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Book II, paragraphs 3 and 8 (Legge)" }, { "source": "source/ziporyn-zhuangzi-essential" }, { "source": "source/roth-zhuangzi" } ] }, { "id": "claim/zhuangzi-skill-adapts-without-rigid-control", "type": "claim", "label": "Zhuangzi’s craft is adaptive rather than coercive", "summary": "Skill in Zhuangzi is tuned to shifting situations, not fixed domination.", "status": "draft", "statement": "The Cook Ding episode portrays consummate skill as responsive movement through the joints and openings of a changing situation rather than force imposed against the material.", "epistemicStatus": "interpretation", "scholarlyDisagreement": "The disagreement is mostly about the practical reading: some take these scenes as political quietism, others as a model of strategic intervention without coercion; both accept the critique of rigid command behavior.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Book III, paragraph 2 (Legge)" }, { "source": "source/ziporyn-zhuangzi-essential" }, { "source": "source/roth-zhuangzi" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/acaranga-matthew-nonretaliation", "type": "comparison", "label": "Ācārāṅga and Matthew: refusing harm under unlike moral frames", "summary": "Both disrupt ordinary permissions to harm, yet one articulates comprehensive mendicant restraint toward living beings and the other addresses disciples' responses to affront, coercion, and enemies.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "passage/acaranga-unchangeable-law-noninjury", "passage/matthew-5-38-42" ], "rationale": "The texts are often grouped under a portable label of nonviolence, but their agents, recipients, examples, and theological rationales differ enough to test whether that label clarifies or flattens.", "genuinelySimilar": "Each places a demanding restraint on the harmed party rather than treating retaliation as automatic: Ācārāṅga rejects injury across living creatures, while Matthew answers affront, suit, forced service, and requests with nonretaliatory responses.", "importantlyDifferent": "Ācārāṅga's rule belongs to an ascetic discipline oriented to karmic liberation and a vast taxonomy of jīvas. Matthew 5 addresses disciples in human social conflicts and proceeds toward enemy-love and imitation of the heavenly Father. Neither text supplies the other's metaphysics or social scope.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "The texts can play a functionally similar role by training practitioners to interrupt retaliatory impulse and accept costly restraint. The present evidence does not establish historical contact or textual dependence.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "The resemblance may be too abstract: one passage regulates injury to all kinds of embodied life, whereas the other uses provocative human interpersonal examples whose interpretation ranges from nonresistance to creative resistance. Calling both nonviolence can hide more than it reveals.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "There is a bounded moral similarity in disciplined restraint; Jain karmic soul theory and Matthean theology of God, discipleship, and kingdom remain distinct.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Both texts command the same form of pacifism.", "Matthew's other cheek is a rule about microscopic life.", "Ācārāṅga's mendicant law directly specifies Christian or modern state ethics." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "locator": "Ācārāṅga I.4.1" }, { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 5:38–42" }, { "source": "source/dundas-jains" }, { "source": "source/r-t-france-gospel-of-matthew-nicnt-2007" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/acaranga-sutta-nipata-nonharm", "type": "comparison", "label": "Ācārāṅga and Sutta Nipāta: all beings under different disciplines", "summary": "Both widen moral concern beyond reciprocal human relationships, but Jain non-injury and Buddhist loving-kindness organize that concern through different accounts of life, bondage, mind-training, and liberation.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "passage/acaranga-unchangeable-law-noninjury", "passage/sutta-nipata-snp1-8-universal-welfare" ], "rationale": "Both passages are repeatedly used as compact witnesses for South Asian non-harm and universal concern, making their differences as important as their shared reach.", "genuinelySimilar": "Each refuses to confine concern to friends or a privileged human group: Ācārāṅga prohibits multiple forms of injury across living creatures, while Snp 1.8 wishes safety and happiness to every living creature and rejects wished pain under provocation.", "importantlyDifferent": "Ācārāṅga states an unchangeable law within a jīva-and-karma discipline of meticulous restraint. Snp 1.8 cultivates mettā, ethical blamelessness, and a boundless heart within a Buddhist path that does not affirm Jain soul metaphysics. Their role-specific practices and liberation accounts are not interchangeable.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Both arose within ancient north Indian renunciant environments where teachers debated karma, rebirth, restraint, and liberation. That shared cultural environment makes common problems and vocabulary plausible without establishing passage-level borrowing.", "relationshipType": "shared-cultural-environment", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "The dates and internal strata of both collections are uncertain, and broad renunciant concern for living beings circulated beyond these two communities. The similarity may therefore be too general to support a historically specific relationship beyond a shared debate environment.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The overlap is moral and disciplinary; the metaphysics diverge sharply over jīva, not-self, karmic matter, and the mechanism of liberation.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Jain ahiṃsā and Buddhist mettā are synonyms.", "Shared north Indian vocabulary proves one passage copied the other.", "A renunciant verse sequence fully describes every Jain or Buddhist political practice." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "locator": "Ācārāṅga I.4.1" }, { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "locator": "Snp 1.8:3.1–8.4" }, { "source": "source/tahtinen-ahimsa" }, { "source": "source/jerryson-juergensmeyer-buddhist-warfare" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/aristotle-confucius-cultivated-flourishing", "type": "comparison", "label": "Aristotle and Confucius: cultivated activity and relational practice", "summary": "Both texts make flourishing a disciplined way of life, but their accounts diverge on what flourishing is structured by: Aristotelian habituation of practical reason versus Confucian cultivation through ritualized relational practice.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/nicomachean-ethics", "text/analects" ], "rationale": "Both traditions answer the same question of what makes life go well, and both frame flourishing as something trained into habit over time rather than achieved by one-shot inspiration.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both reject the idea that flourishing is a single emotion or temporary felicity. Aristotle insists on sustained formation of character through repeated moral practice, and the Analects repeatedly describe repeated learning, ritual participation, and disciplined self-cultivation (constant perseverance, propriety, and relational practice) as the means to become complete in conduct.", "importantlyDifferent": "Aristotle defines eudaimonia as rational activity of the soul ordered by virtue and practical wisdom, with external conditions and civic capacities as part of a complete life. Confucius uses a role-relational grammar: li and ren are cultivated within family, court, and community so that one grows humane through concrete obligations. The difference is not merely rhetorical; one text centers teleological self-activity of reason, the other centers moral formation through ritual and relation.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Both are large-scale educational ethics traditions that are textually mediated and preserved through long reception histories. The overlap is best explained as functional-similarity: each offers a method for stabilizing flourishing as an outcome of formation practices, not as evidence of direct textual borrowing.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "A skeptic can argue that both projects are too broad to compare directly because one asks primarily for individual ethical function and the other embeds ethical formation in social-role ritualization. The terms 'virtue' and 'flourishing' are modern overlays on different native grammars.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "Moral convergence is strongest: both prescribe durable habits that align conduct with an intelligible good. Metaphysical commitments are separate: Aristotle's ethical anthropology is teleological and reason-centered, while Confucius's framework is relationship-centered and transmitted through ritual order without Aristotle's explicit function-of-man argument.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Both traditions reduce cultivation to social conformity.", "Aristotle and Confucius share one identical ontology of the self.", "Ritual observance in Confucianism and habituation in Aristotle are interchangeable mechanisms." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "I.1, I.7, II.1" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics" }, { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "Analects 1.1; 4.15; 6.30; 12.1" }, { "source": "source/riegel-confucius" }, { "source": "source/slingerland-analects" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/aristotle-confucius-relational-obligation", "type": "comparison", "label": "Aristotle and Confucius on obligation to others", "summary": "Both traditions justify ethical life through stable obligations that shape persons, yet Aristotle centers civic virtue and friendship in rational habituation while Confucius centers role-based ritual cultivation.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "tradition/aristotelianism", "tradition/confucianism" ], "rationale": "Both are canonical philosophical-ethical frameworks for obligations beyond self-interest, so the comparison tests whether similar practical goals hide different anthropologies and institutions.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both teach that obligations are not isolated preferences but social-philosophical practices learned over time. Aristotle and Confucius each treat ethical formation as formative: repeated practice shapes persons into reliable co-citizens or humane participants in community life.", "importantlyDifferent": "Aristotle's account is explicitly civic and teleological: civic virtue and friendship are tied to practical wisdom, justice within the polis, and the flourishing of the political community. Confucian obligation is role-relational and ritualized, with li and ren cultivating responsiveness through family, hierarchy, etiquette, and public ceremony. The contrast is between a polis-centered account of virtue and justice and a role-embedded cultivation of humane conduct.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Both answers are functionally similar because they resolve the same social problem: how to sustain cooperation and character under recurrent conflict while avoiding atomistic self-interest. Similarity is practical and institutional rather than doctrinal identity.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "A critic can argue that the apparent similarity understates that the comparison works at a very high level; Aristotle's framework is a theory of moral psychology and politics, while Confucianism is a ritual-ethical pedagogy with a distinct vocabulary of kinship and social hierarchy.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "Moral convergence appears in civic-facing obligations and cultivation practices. Metaphysical and psychological premises diverge on personhood, deliberation, and the ultimate structure of the good life.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Friendship in Aristotle and role reciprocity in Confucius are interchangeable social mechanics.", "Aristotle and Confucius ground obligation in the same theory of authority.", "Ritual in Confucius is a decorative addition rather than the medium of moral duty." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics" }, { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "Analects 12.1; 12.22; 15.24" }, { "source": "source/yu-ethics-confucius-aristotle" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/aristotle-epicurus-human-end", "type": "comparison", "label": "Aristotle and Epicurus: competing accounts of the human end", "summary": "Both systems answer what makes a life go well, but they compete at the level of final ends: Aristotelian eudaimonia as excellent rational activity versus Epicurean flourishing as stable pleasure and freedom from disturbance.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/nicomachean-ethics", "text/letter-to-menoeceus" ], "rationale": "The pair is a clean test of how two Greek philosophical traditions handle the same practical question without implying influence or dependence.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both works identify the central ethical problem as one of misdirected desire and unstable pursuit. Aristotle and Epicurus each propose standards for a final end, argue for disciplined re-education of affective life, and treat flourishing as something developed through practical judgment.", "importantlyDifferent": "Aristotle places the telos of human life in virtuous activity of the rational soul, completed through practical wisdom and shaped by social conditions. Epicurus makes pleasure the stated criterion and beginning and goal of happiness, then restricts it by prudence to stable ataraxia and removal of fear, including fear of death. These are parallel anti-hedonic-maximization moves, not shared doctrines about what 'the end' ultimately is.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Both are Greek philosophical texts participating in a common language of ethics and desire control, making convergent practical architecture plausible through shared cultural debate rather than literary transmission.", "relationshipType": "shared-cultural-environment", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "The strongest objection is that shared language in the Greek philosophical world may make functional overlap look stronger than it is. In the sources available, shared-cultural labeling remains safer than claims of derivation because key Greek terms and transmission histories are not fully recoverable.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "There is moral-practical convergence in structuring life through disciplined desire. Metaphysically they part ways on what grounds flourishing: Aristotle's account is teleological and civic-ethical in orientation, while Epicurus's account is atomistic, therapeutic, and explicitly death-neutral in evaluating final harm.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Epicurus simply says 'more pleasure is always better'.", "Aristotle and Epicurus defend the same moral end because both mention pleasure at times.", "Common Greek chronology implies one school copied the other." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "I.1, I.7" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics" }, { "source": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "locator": "Menoeceus 124–125; 128–129" }, { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "locator": "PD 3; 5; Menoeceus text" }, { "source": "source/konstan-epicurus" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/atrahasis-vs-gilgamesh-flood", "type": "comparison", "label": "Atrahasis and Gilgamesh XI: a flood story repurposed for mortality", "summary": "The launch set's clean direct-dependence case: Tablet XI adapts an Atrahasis flood version, but changes the story's job—from explaining human population and social limits to denying Gilgamesh the exceptional immortality of the survivor.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/atrahasis", "text/epic-of-gilgamesh" ], "rationale": "Because the literary reuse is demonstrable at a much higher confidence than Genesis's immediate source, this pairing calibrates what direct-textual-dependence should mean and prevents every flood resemblance from being called borrowing.", "genuinelySimilar": "Gilgamesh XI preserves the Atrahasis flood sequence and numerous directly comparable details: a divine council's destruction decision, Ea's indirect warning, demolition and construction of a sealed boat, preservation of household and living things, annihilating storm, sacrifice, divine gathering, Enlil's anger at a survivor, and Ea's rebuke. Mountain landing and bird release belong to the reconstructed Atrahasis-type sequence but fall in lacunose portions of the surviving Old Babylonian witness, so Gilgamesh—not that damaged tablet—preserves them. Tablet XI even applies 'Atrahasis'—exceedingly wise—to its flood survivor.", "importantlyDifferent": "Atrahasis makes the flood the climax of a creation-and-population history and ends by redesigning human reproduction. Gilgamesh turns the inherited episode into Utnapishtim's embedded first-person answer to a hero seeking immortality: the flood explains why this one couple became exceptional, then the failed sleep test shows Gilgamesh cannot repeat that exception. The later epic drops or obscures much of Atrahasis's demographic frame because mortality, not population policy, is now the governing question.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Text-historical comparison shows that the Standard Babylonian editor incorporated an earlier Atrahasis flood recension into the Gilgamesh epic. Close ordered correspondences and adapted wording go beyond shared environment or independent convergence, though the immediate intermediary was probably a lost recension rather than the surviving Old Babylonian tablet itself.", "relationshipType": "direct-textual-dependence", "confidence": "high", "strongestCounterargument": "Calling the relationship direct can imply that the Standard Babylonian editor copied the extant Lambert–Millard manuscript line for line. The source was likely a variant or intermediate Atrahasis recension, and Gilgamesh's bird sequence preserves material missing in the damaged Old Babylonian witnesses. The dependence is direct at the work-tradition level; its manuscript stemma remains reconstructed.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The two texts share a divine-human cosmos and much plot material, but their explanatory functions differ. Atrahasis makes infant mortality and reproductive limits part of divine population policy; Gilgamesh uses the survivor's immortality as an unrepeatable exception that confirms ordinary human death.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "'Gilgamesh is the oldest flood story' confuses the fame of Tablet XI with the earlier Atrahasis tradition it adapts.", "'Same plot means same meaning' misses that the borrowed story is repurposed from population governance to the limits of human immortality." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/tigay-gilgamesh-evolution", "locator": "pp. 214–229" }, { "source": "source/george-babylonian-gilgamesh", "locator": "Tablet XI" }, { "source": "source/lambert-millard-atrahasis", "locator": "Tablet III" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/daodejing-marcus-limited-control", "type": "comparison", "label": "Daodejing and Marcus Aurelius: non-grasping in flux with distinct orders of reality", "summary": "Both counsel composure amid change, but their vocabularies of control differ: Daoist wu wei reframes action within cosmic-political process, while Marcus frames disciplined assent within rational duty under providence.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/daodejing", "text/marcus-aurelius-meditations" ], "rationale": "The two traditions are often paired through quotes about tranquility, yet their political and anthropological assumptions are different enough to require a precision comparison.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both advocate a non-grasping orientation to change and urge practitioners to remain internally steady rather than compulsively over-commanding events. Each repeatedly redirects attention from feverish clinging toward a disciplined participation in what unfolds, arguing that peace depends on adjusting one’s own orientation more than on mastering all externals.", "importantlyDifferent": "The Daodejing frames this as harmony with Dao and a refusal to impose artificial, forceful control over natural and social flows, often privileging yielding, minimal intervention, and a lightly governed polity. Marcus’s texts, by contrast, keep agency within moral judgment and rational duty: even while accepting transience, he demands active performance of role-responsibility, ethical self-scrutiny, and alignment with the rational-cosmic order commonly described as providence. Stoic duty is not a passive resignation to fate but a commitment to rational action under necessity. Their moral psychology therefore differs: Daoist texts can valorize withdrawal from projects of domination, while Marcus repeatedly ties serenity to ongoing public-civic obligation.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Both bodies are read through the modern language of acceptance, encouraging readers to stop trying to own what changes inevitably. Similarities are strongest at the level of technique and temperament, and there is no evidence of textual dependence or direct transmission.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "A forced alignment risks erasing their divergent commitments: Marcus never says all control has vanished, and his therapeutic project depends on disciplined rational choice rather than withdrawal from political moral agency. Treating him as simply an advocate of non-action or Zen-like indifference would import foreign control dichotomies and flatten his civic ethic.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The resemblance is practical: each redirects effort away from grasping at unstable externals. The Daodejing's Dao, non-coercive efficacy, and political counsel are not Marcus's rationally ordered cosmos, providence, and role-guided Stoic ethics; no common metaphysics follows.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Marcus teaches complete powerlessness over one’s life.", "The Daodejing and Marcus both promote political passivity.", "Stoic non-attachment in Marcus is equivalent to Daoist wu wei as a metaphysical identity.", "Marcus’s ethics are mostly about emotion suppression, not duty." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891" }, { "source": "source/hansen-daoism" }, { "source": "source/long-meditations-1862" }, { "source": "source/hadot-inner-citadel" }, { "source": "source/sellars-stoicism" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/deucalion-vs-mesopotamian-flood", "type": "comparison", "label": "Deucalion and the Mesopotamian flood complex: transmitted architecture, Greek ethnogenesis", "summary": "Greek flood tradition likely developed in a connected eastern Mediterranean world, but Pseudo-Apollodorus is not a disguised copy of one tablet: the story becomes regional, genealogical, and specifically concerned with producing a Greek people from stone.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/library-of-apollodorus", "text/atrahasis", "text/epic-of-gilgamesh" ], "rationale": "The pairing tests how to record plausible areal transmission when there is no verbal borrowing or recoverable donor manuscript. It also corrects the flattening nickname 'the Greek Noah' by comparing Deucalion to the older Mesopotamian complex rather than assuming dependence on Genesis.", "genuinelySimilar": "Across the Mesopotamian complex, a divine assembly resolves on mass destruction, Ea's counsel preserves a favored human, the survivor provisions a vessel, catastrophic water destroys most human life, the vessel reaches safety, the survivor sacrifices, and human society begins again. Pseudo-Apollodorus likewise has Prometheus advise Deucalion to provision a chest before Zeus floods most of Greece, after which Deucalion lands, sacrifices, and requests renewed people. Prometheus's advisory function is structurally comparable to Ea's preservation of a survivor, although Pseudo-Apollodorus does not narrate a secret warning or divine quarrel.", "importantlyDifferent": "Pseudo-Apollodorus floods the greater part of Greece, allows other people to escape on mountains, carries no animals, sends no scout birds, specifies no divine-council secret, and gives no reason for Zeus's decision in this section. Its climax is stone-born men and women followed by genealogies of Greek peoples. Atrahasis embeds the flood in divine labor, multiplication, rigmu, and a new reproductive regime; Gilgamesh XI embeds its inherited flood account in a failed search for immortality. Neither Mesopotamian work manufactures an ethnic people from earth's stones.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Greek and Near Eastern narratives moved through a connected eastern Mediterranean, and modern classicists commonly judge influence from the mature Mesopotamian flood complex on Greek tradition plausible or likely. Because the specific route, donor version, and moment of transmission are unknown, shared cultural environment captures diffusion and reworking without falsely claiming work-level dependence between Pseudo-Apollodorus and one surviving tablet.", "relationshipType": "shared-cultural-environment", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "Flood, vessel, mountain, and thanksgiving sacrifice can arise from the internal logic of surviving inundation. The fullest Greek evidence is late, earlier versions are fragmentary, and no linguistic parallel identifies a Mesopotamian donor. The similarities therefore support contact more strongly than they identify a transmission chain.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The convergence is narrative and cosmological—catastrophe makes a renewed human order possible—not a shared moral theology. Atrahasis responds to human proliferation; Pseudo-Apollodorus 1.7.2 supplies no ethical cause and redirects renewal into Greek genealogy; Gilgamesh redirects the inherited account toward exceptional immortality.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "'Deucalion is the Greek Noah' hides the regional scope, other survivors, absence of animals and covenant, and the stone-born ethnogenesis.", "'Deucalion copied Genesis' is not demonstrated; the responsible claim concerns a wider Near Eastern and Mediterranean history of transmission." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/aguirre-deucalion", "locator": "pp. 1–12" }, { "source": "source/rose-dowden-deucalion" }, { "source": "source/frazer-apollodorus", "locator": "Library 1.7.2" }, { "source": "source/lambert-millard-atrahasis" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/epictetus-vs-buddhist-craving", "type": "comparison", "label": "Epictetus and early Buddhism: training desire without false equivalence", "summary": "Both reduce vulnerability to frustrated attachment, but orexis and taṇhā occupy different psychologies and different accounts of self, rebirth, liberation, virtue, and providence.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/epictetus-encheiridion", "text/samyutta-nikaya" ], "rationale": "English translations make both traditions sound as though they simply eliminate desire. Comparing their operative terms tests whether a shared practical function survives after that misleading slogan is removed.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both diagnose dependence on obtaining unstable objects as a source of distress and train the practitioner to change the relation between well-being and wanting rather than merely multiplying successful satisfactions.", "importantlyDifferent": "Encheiridion 2 suspends orexis only for the beginner and ultimately permits rational desire directed toward virtue while preserving prohairesis, appropriate action, and a providential cosmos. SN 56.11 targets taṇhā within the four noble truths' account of dukkha, renewed existence, and cessation, while Buddhist vocabulary still allows wholesome chanda. Apatheia is not nirvāṇa.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "The disciplines play a comparable practical role in reducing vulnerability to frustrated attachment. The current evidence supports functional similarity, not textual transmission between Epictetus and the Pāli discourse.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "Once orexis and taṇhā are restored to their own psychological and soteriological systems, the shared English word 'desire' may be doing most of the comparative work. A comparison claiming both traditions eliminate all desire would be false for both.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "There is a practical convergence in training attachment and response. Metaphysical and soteriological differences over self, causation, rebirth, liberation, virtue, and providential nature remain decisive.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Both traditions teach emotional suppression.", "Stoic apatheia is the same state as nirvāṇa.", "All wanting is bad in either system.", "Epictetan responsible choice is equivalent to a permanent Buddhist self." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Encheiridion 1–2" }, { "source": "source/long-epictetus-guide" }, { "source": "source/sujato-sn56-11", "locator": "SN 56.11:4.3–4.5" }, { "source": "source/harvey-introduction-buddhism", "locator": "p. 63" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/epicurus-epictetus-therapeutic-flourishing", "type": "comparison", "label": "Epicurus and Epictetus: therapeutic flourishing with incompatible goods", "summary": "Both traditions prescribe practices that reduce disturbance and reorient desire, but they disagree on the highest good and the structure of moral agency: Epicurean pleasure-centered tranquility versus Stoic role-based rational freedom under providence.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/letter-to-menoeceus", "text/epictetus-discourses" ], "rationale": "Both are practical therapies for a disturbed life, making them natural counterparts for functional comparison while preserving conceptual differences in what counts as flourishing.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both propose that most suffering comes from mismanaged desires and judgments, and both teach that stable well-being requires training attention, impulse, and attachment. Epicurus ties this to sensible pleasure and removal of fear, while Epictetus ties it to disciplined assent and orientation toward what is within one's prohairesis.", "importantlyDifferent": "Epicurus makes measured pleasure and absence of pain the central practical end and argues that death is nothing to us; Epictetus does not treat pleasure as the telos, treats wisdom and virtue as primary goods, and explicitly frames human flourishing within a rational order that includes external constraints and a providential cosmic account. Epicurean friendship and security are therapeutic supports; Epictetan ethics places the self in social and cosmic duty structures.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "The overlap is best explained by functional similarity within a Hellenistic therapeutic family: both respond to existential anxiety, emotional reactivity, and social fragility with disciplined methods of self-management.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "Epicurean sources are often preserved through brief doctrinal fragments, while Epictetus appears in a fuller discursive pedagogy; this uneven evidence can inflate the apparent overlap of the two methods. If 'therapeutic freedom' is read too generally, differences between moral psychology and metaphysical purpose can disappear.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "Practically both seek freedom from turmoil, yet they are not metaphysically aligned: Epicurus excludes providential governance from the account of flourishing, while Epictetus grounds transformation in providence, rational cosmos, and virtue-centered ethics.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Epicurus is a crude sensualist and Epictetus only renames the same lifestyle.", "Stoic apatheia is psychological numbness, and Epicurean ataraxia is identical.", "Both traditions assign the same role to pleasure and the same place to providence." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "locator": "Menoeceus 124–129" }, { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "locator": "PD 3; 5" }, { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Discourses I.1–2" }, { "source": "source/long-epictetus-guide" }, { "source": "source/graver-sep-epictetus" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/genesis-vs-atrahasis-flood", "type": "comparison", "label": "Genesis and Atrahasis: inherited flood architecture, inverted social logic", "summary": "The strongest answer to 'Did Genesis copy Gilgamesh?' is more exact: Genesis reworks an older Mesopotamian flood tradition especially close to Atrahasis, but its immediate Vorlage is unrecoverable—and the theological reversal is the point, not a footnote.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/genesis", "text/atrahasis" ], "rationale": "Both embed a flood inside a primeval history running from creation and multiplication to catastrophe and a redesigned human order. Their shared ordered architecture makes relationship more plausible than a list of generic flood motifs, while their opposed post-flood solutions expose what Genesis changes.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both move through divine decision, warning of a favored survivor, a sealed rescue vessel, preservation of life, overwhelming water, survival, sacrifice, and a settlement intended to prevent another destruction. Both place the flood after creation and human multiplication and preserve divine grief or regret rather than presenting impersonal weather; only Atrahasis makes demographic pressure causal, while Genesis explicitly names wickedness, corruption, and violence.", "importantlyDifferent": "Atrahasis locates the crisis in human rigmu amid uncontrolled multiplication and ends with reproductive restrictions. Genesis names wickedness, corruption, and violence; after admitting the human heart remains inclined to evil, it renews 'be fruitful and multiply,' regulates bloodshed, and establishes a covenant with all creatures. Atrahasis divides agency among Enlil, Enki, and the lamenting birth goddess; Genesis makes one God judge, preserve, grieve, and bind the divine future. The contrast is not capricious gods versus a wholly untroubled biblical deity—both traditions depict regret—but divided versus unified agency and demographic control versus covenantal restraint.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Most current scholarship treats Genesis as adapting older Mesopotamian flood tradition, with Atrahasis providing the closest primeval-history frame and Gilgamesh preserving other details. Scholars still disagree over whether either biblical strand used a particular extant text, a lost intermediate recension, oral tradition, or several transmitted versions; the controlled label is therefore contested rather than direct dependence on the tablet we possess.", "relationshipType": "contested", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "A minority position explains the correspondences through a shared ancient Near Eastern cultural environment rather than textual dependence, and boats, mountains, sacrifice, and survival can follow naturally from flood storytelling. More damaging to a simple borrowing claim, Genesis is composite and damaged Atrahasis manuscripts leave gaps exactly where some proposed parallels would need to be tested. The relationship to a Mesopotamian tradition is strong; any single-source genealogy is not.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The narrative architecture is inherited or transmitted, but the moral and political settlement is transformed. Genesis ethicizes the cause around violence and makes the resolution covenantal; Atrahasis treats continued human proliferation as the governance problem. Shared sacrifice does not imply shared metaphysics: one creator's self-limitation differs from bargaining and conflict within a dependent divine assembly.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "'Genesis copied the Epic of Gilgamesh' identifies the wrong level of certainty: the older Atrahasis tradition is often the closer framework, and the immediate source is unknown.", "'Mesopotamian gods destroy humans merely because they are loud' suppresses the epic's multiplication context and the philological debate over rigmu.", "'Only Genesis contains divine regret' is false; the Mesopotamian birth goddess laments the destruction, though divine agency is divided differently." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/carr-genesis-flood", "locator": "pp. 141–177" }, { "source": "source/day-genesis-flood", "note": "On direct versus indirect dependence and Atrahasis as the closest source for several non-Priestly features." }, { "source": "source/lambert-millard-atrahasis" }, { "source": "source/heffron-atrahasis-noise" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/genesis-vs-hebrews-hospitality", "type": "comparison", "label": "Genesis and Hebrews: angel-host narrative becomes exhortation", "summary": "Hebrews 13:2 is a disciplined test of textual reception: a remembered angel-host pattern becomes a general practice, while the exact scriptural referent remains unnamed and therefore contested.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/genesis", "text/epistle-to-hebrews" ], "rationale": "Hebrews explicitly speaks of people hosting angels without knowing it, a conspicuous echo of the scriptural cycle in which Abraham receives three men and Lot receives angels.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both center household reception of visitors whose angelic or divine identity is not the ordinary social identity under which hospitality begins.", "importantlyDifferent": "Genesis narrates particular encounters and makes Lot's episode ethically disturbing; Hebrews offers a brief communal imperative, names no patriarch, and omits narrative consequences. Genesis 18 announces the LORD's appearance to the reader and does not plainly state Abraham's subjective ignorance.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Hebrews intentionally recalls an established scriptural hospitality-and-angel motif and applies it to Christian communal conduct.", "relationshipType": "contested", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "Hebrews quotes no Genesis wording and names no character. Gideon, Manoah, Tobit, and wider Jewish angel-host traditions could also be in view, so the confidence applies to dependence on the scriptural motif—especially the Genesis 18–19 cycle—not exclusive use of Genesis 18 alone.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The reception is primarily moral: Hebrews draws an obligation from a metaphysically charged story without claiming that every stranger is an angel.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Hebrews says every stranger may literally be an angel.", "Abraham earned Isaac as payment for hospitality.", "Lot is presented as an unqualified moral model." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 18–19; Hebrews 13:2" }, { "source": "source/martin-ot-hospitality" }, { "source": "source/ahn-venter-genesis-18" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/genesis-vs-odyssey-hospitality", "type": "comparison", "label": "Genesis and the Odyssey: welcome before disclosure", "summary": "Both make reception of an unknown arrival religiously weighty, but Genesis's singular covenantal theophany and Homer's repeated, reciprocal xenia institution answer different social and theological questions.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/genesis", "text/odyssey" ], "rationale": "Genesis 18 and Odyssey hospitality scenes narrate welcome, rest, and food before the visitor's full identity or business is established, making them useful for testing functional similarity without assuming transmission.", "genuinelySimilar": "Unknown or incompletely known visitors are promptly received and fed; treatment of the arrival carries divine significance and opens the way to consequential disclosure or speech.", "importantlyDifferent": "Genesis 18 is a singular ancestral and covenantal theophany that leads to Isaac's promised birth and a justice dialogue. Odyssey hospitality is a recurring poetic type-scene and reciprocal institution involving inquiry, gifts, escort, status, inherited bonds, and Zeus Xenios. Not every Homeric guest is a god in disguise, and Abraham is not founding Greek guest-friendship.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Household hospitality manages vulnerable and potentially dangerous encounters in worlds without impersonal lodging or protection, while divine oversight raises the moral stakes. This functional explanation does not establish borrowing.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "Genesis 18's center is divine promise and ambiguous theophany, whereas Homeric hospitality is a repeated literary sequence and social institution. Food before questions may be ordinary etiquette; reducing both to 'be kind to strangers' would erase precisely what makes each tradition distinctive.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "There is limited moral convergence in receiving, feeding, and protecting an unfamiliar arrival. The metaphysics and social structures diverge: Israel's God and three men cannot be equated with polytheistic divine disguise, Zeus's patronage, or reciprocal xenia.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Xenia means unconditional kindness to everyone.", "Every Homeric stranger is actually a disguised god.", "Zeus Xenios is biblical monotheism under another name.", "A shared meal sequence proves Genesis borrowed from Greece." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 18:1–8" }, { "source": "source/murray-odyssey", "locator": "Odyssey 1.120–124; 9.266–271; 14.56–59" }, { "source": "source/reece-strangers-welcome" }, { "source": "source/herman-ritualised-friendship" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/job-vs-ayyub", "type": "comparison", "label": "Job and Ayyūb: one figure, two theologies of suffering", "summary": "The same righteous sufferer appears in both scriptures — yet the Bible gives him thirty-nine chapters of protest and the Qur'an gives him one sentence of appeal. A rare controlled experiment: shared source figure, divergent theological emphasis.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/book-of-job", "text/quran" ], "rationale": "Because the Qur'anic Ayyūb is recognizably the Job of the wider biblical tradition, differences between the two presentations cannot be explained by independent origins — they isolate what each scripture chose to emphasize about innocent suffering, making this the cleanest 'common source, different answer' case in the theme.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both feature the same figure: a servant of God, conspicuously faithful, struck by devastating affliction not framed as punishment; both have him restored doubly ('the like thereof along with them,' Q 21:84; 'twice as much as he had before,' Job 42:10); and both make him an enduring exemplar for later tradition ('a remembrance for the worshippers'; 'ye have heard of the patience of Job,' James 5:11).", "importantlyDifferent": "Scale and voice: the biblical book devotes most of its length to Job's anguished protest and legal challenge to God, and its epilogue vindicates the protester over his pious friends (42:7). The Qur'an compresses Job to six verses in which his only speech is a restrained appeal ('Lo! adversity afflicteth me…'), and the divine verdict praises his steadfastness (ṣābir, 38:44). The Bible canonizes protest as a mode of faith; the Qur'an canonizes patience. The Satan-wager frame, the friends, and the whirlwind speeches have no Qur'anic counterpart.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Common ancestral tradition: the Qur'an presupposes and reworks the Job figure known from biblical and post-biblical Jewish and Christian tradition (including oral and haggadic forms such as the Testament of Job), addressing an audience assumed to know the story. The similarity is inherited; the divergence is editorial and theological.", "relationshipType": "common-ancestral-source", "confidence": "high", "strongestCounterargument": "The 'patience vs. protest' contrast can be overdrawn in both directions: later Jewish and Christian reception also made Job a byword for patience (James 5:11) while muting his protest, and Islamic tafsīr elaborates Ayyūb's suffering in vivid detail that restores much of the drama the Qur'anic text omits — so the divergence may belong as much to each tradition's reception as to the scriptures themselves. Additionally, whether the Qur'an drew on the biblical text directly or on oral/para-biblical tradition remains debated, so 'common ancestral source' describes the tradition, not a documented literary pathway.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "Metaphysically the two scriptures largely agree here (one sovereign God who permits the trial and restores). The divergence is moral-devotional: what the exemplary sufferer is praised for — vindicated candor before God, or steadfast trust in God.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "'The patient Job' is the biblical picture — proverbial patience comes from the epistle of James and later reception; the Job of the poetic dialogues is anything but patient.", "'The Qur'an just retells the Bible' — the Qur'anic Job pericopes are allusive reworkings assuming audience knowledge, not abridgments of the biblical text." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/johns-quranic-job", "note": "On the allusive, compressed character of the Qur'anic presentation." }, { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "21:83–84; 38:41–44" }, { "source": "source/newsom-job", "note": "On protest as the poetic book's mode of faith." } ] }, { "id": "comparison/job-vs-dukkha", "type": "comparison", "label": "Job's protest vs. the dukkha diagnosis", "summary": "Two canonical responses to innocent suffering that both refuse simple cosmic bookkeeping — one through theistic mystery and protest, the other through an impersonal causal diagnosis and a path of practice.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "claim/job-rejects-retribution", "claim/dukkha-marks-existence" ], "rationale": "Both are foundational treatments of the same human question — why the innocent suffer — and both push against the folk answer that suffering measures sin. That makes the pair a clean first test of the five-question comparison contract.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both reject the assumption that suffering is reliably proportionate to personal wrongdoing. Job's poetry dismantles his friends' retribution theology; early Buddhist teaching treats dukkha as a structural mark of conditioned existence rather than a targeted punishment. Both relocate the question from 'what did the sufferer do?' to 'what is the world actually like?'.", "importantlyDifferent": "Job's answer is personal and theistic: an encounter with a creator God whose purposes exceed human comprehension, which leaves protest standing and offers no method. The dukkha teaching is impersonal and diagnostic: suffering arises from craving and conditions, and there is a specified path to its cessation. One preserves divine mystery within relationship; the other offers non-theistic causal analysis and a soteriology. These metaphysics are incompatible, not variations on a theme.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Innocent suffering is a universal observation that any reflective tradition must eventually face, and simple retributive accounts collapse under lived experience. Independent movement beyond retribution is therefore expected wherever sustained moral reflection occurs; no historical contact is needed to explain it.", "relationshipType": "independent-convergence", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "The shared 'rejection of retribution' may be overstated. Mainstream Buddhist karma doctrine still connects present experience to past action across lifetimes, and most of the Hebrew Bible outside Job's poetry affirms retributive justice. Both traditions may be better described as internally contested on this question than as converging with each other.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The convergence is diagnostic and practical — how to stand toward unexplained suffering without blaming the sufferer. It is not metaphysical: a personal creator God and an impersonal conditioned process are incompatible accounts of reality.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "'Job teaches that suffering is a test' — the wager framing belongs to the prose prologue; the poetic dialogues never resolve to it.", "'Buddhism says all suffering is deserved karma' — early texts give multiple causes of present experience, karma among them, and treat the claim that everything felt is due to past deeds as a wrong view." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/newsom-job" }, { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "locator": "ch. 2–3" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/job-vs-ludlul", "type": "comparison", "label": "Job and the Babylonian righteous sufferer", "summary": "The classic ancient Near Eastern comparison: two righteous sufferers, centuries apart in the same cultural world, whose stories share a scaffold — blameless piety, inexplicable ruin, the failure of conventional theology, divine restoration — while answering the crisis in profoundly different ways.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/book-of-job", "text/ludlul-bel-nemeqi" ], "rationale": "Ludlul is the best-attested pre-biblical righteous-sufferer text, copied for a millennium in the milieu adjacent to ancient Israel. Whether and how it relates to Job is the sharpest available test case for distinguishing shared cultural environment from direct borrowing — exactly the discipline this project's relationship vocabulary exists to enforce.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both center a conspicuously pious man ruined without stated fault; both stage the failure of conventional explanations (Ludlul's sufferer has performed every rite yet is treated 'like one who had not'; Job's friends' retribution theology is divinely rebuked); both conclude that divine purposes exceed human comprehension (Ludlul Tablet II's 'Who knows the will of the gods in heaven?' parallels the whirlwind speeches' unanswerable questions); and both end in restoration that is given, not earned.", "importantlyDifferent": "Job argues with God face to face; Ludlul's sufferer never addresses Marduk directly and voices no legal protest — there is no courtroom drama, no demand for vindication. Ludlul resolves ritually and doxologically (dream-messengers, incantation priest, praise of Marduk at the temple gates); Job resolves dialogically, with God's own verdict against the friends (42:7) leaving the protest standing. Ludlul is henotheistic praise literature exalting Marduk's paradoxical power ('whose fury is like a raging storm, whose breeze is sweet as the breath of morn' in spirit); Job unfolds within Israel's covenantal monotheism, which raises the stakes: there is no second god to blame.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Most scholars locate both texts in a shared ancient Near Eastern scribal-wisdom tradition of the pious sufferer (which also includes the Sumerian 'Man and His God' and the Babylonian Theodicy). Israel's literati plausibly knew the genre's conventions — Mesopotamian scribal culture radiated across the Levant — without any demonstrable literary dependence of Job on Ludlul itself.", "relationshipType": "shared-cultural-environment", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "The parallels may reflect the universal logic of the problem rather than a shared literary environment: any culture that believes gods reward righteousness will eventually dramatize the pious sufferer, so genre resemblance alone cannot establish historical connection (independent convergence remains defensible). Against direct dependence, conversely, stand the centuries-wide dating gap, the absence of verbal parallels, and the fundamentally different resolutions — which is why this comparison asserts environment, not borrowing.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The convergence is diagnostic (retribution theology fails the innocent sufferer) and partially moral (piety is not a vending machine). Metaphysically the texts diverge: Marduk's inscrutable sovereignty among the gods versus the singular covenant God of Israel.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "'Job is copied from the Babylonian Job' — no verbal dependence has been demonstrated; the relationship is generic and environmental, not textual.", "'Ludlul proves suffering literature is all the same' — the two works' resolutions (cultic restoration vs. vindicated protest) are opposed on precisely the point that matters most." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/lambert-bwl", "note": "Edition and introduction to the righteous-sufferer corpus." }, { "source": "source/annus-lenzi-ludlul", "note": "Current edition; introduction discusses biblical comparisons." }, { "source": "source/newsom-job", "note": "Job in its ancient Near Eastern literary context." } ] }, { "id": "comparison/kalama-pyrrhonism-inquiry", "type": "comparison", "label": "Kalama teaching and Pyrrhonian inquiry: not the same doubt", "summary": "Both can sound anti-authoritarian in translation, but AN 3.65 applies explicit ethical tests to greed, hate, delusion, harm, and welfare, while Pyrrhonism suspends judgment when opposed considerations remain equipollent.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/anguttara-nikaya", "text/outlines-of-pyrrhonism" ], "rationale": "The two texts are sometimes collapsed under a generic ‘question everything’ tag; this node specifies where resemblance ends and where methods and ends diverge.", "genuinelySimilar": "Neither text treats teacher-status or inherited assertion as automatically decisive. Each responds to conflicting claims with a practice that delays unexamined acceptance, which explains the initial resemblance.", "importantlyDifferent": "AN 3.65 does not institute generalized suspension. It evaluates greed, hate, and delusion through whether they are skillful, blameworthy, criticized by sensible people, and productive of harm or welfare; it then recommends specific qualities and practices. Sextus instead describes opposition, equipollence, suspension, and ordinary action guided by appearances without deciding the underlying dogmatic question. The Buddhist discourse reaches affirmative ethical judgments where the Pyrrhonian procedure characteristically withholds them.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "The resemblance is largely produced by a broad human problem—competing teachers and claims—and by modern summaries such as 'question authority.' The cited evidence establishes no textual contact or dependence, and the similarity weakens once each text's decision rule is restored.", "relationshipType": "surface-resemblance-only", "confidence": "high", "strongestCounterargument": "The resemblance can mislead: AN 3.65 grounds inquiry in ethical transformation and the observable effects of greed, hate, and delusion, not in a universal suspension of assent. Reading Pyrrhonism through the Kalama lens risks portraying Buddhist practice as blanket doubt and missing its constructive evaluative standards.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The surface resemblance concerns when not to defer to a claim. AN 3.65 supplies a moral test and constructive practices; Sextus supplies an epistemic procedure and non-dogmatic guides for ordinary life. No shared metaphysics follows.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "AN 3.65 teaches universal doubt like Pyrrhonism.", "Pyrrhonism and the Buddha are equivalent because both reject external authorities.", "The Kalama passage recommends skepticism detached from ethics." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-an3-65" }, { "source": "source/bodhi-numerical-discourses" }, { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899" }, { "source": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/kant-confucius-reciprocity", "type": "comparison", "label": "Kant and Confucius: reciprocity across vocabularies", "summary": "Both traditions regulate interpersonal conduct through reciprocity, but Kant's test is a universal law of willing, while Confucius's reciprocity is role-embedded and ritualized.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "tradition/kantian-ethics", "tradition/confucianism" ], "rationale": "The pair is useful for separating English-level overlap around 'reciprocity' from non-equivalent moral grammars: one tradition asks for universalizable maxims, the other trains concrete relational response through family and ritual forms.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both reject treating immediate inclination as the sole standard of conduct and ask agents to test their treatment of others against a standard that extends beyond the present case. The overlap is practical and limited, not an identity between their principles.", "importantlyDifferent": "Kantian universal law is a formal test of duty from autonomy and respect for persons; it does not require a specific social role to make reciprocity binding. Confucius' reciprocity language (notably shu in Analects 15.24) emerges within role-conditioned cultivation, where ren and li shape obligations through family, community, and ritual practice. The difference is structural, not merely semantic.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Modern comparison often maps both to 'mutual respect' because both reject arbitrary partiality, and both are influential in modern moral thought. That makes a surface resemblance plausible without implying a shared Kantian or Confucian concept of duty.", "relationshipType": "surface-resemblance-only", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "Analysts may overstate divergence: one can read Confucian role-responsibility as a form of universal moral reason, or Kantian dignity language as functionally equivalent to ritual reciprocity. The safer claim is that resemblance appears strongest at the practical recommendation level and breaks down under formalization.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "This is primarily a moral-level comparison. The strongest contrast is methodological: Kant's deontic universalism is abstracted from specific statuses, whereas Confucian ethics binds duties to situated roles.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Kantian universal law is the same principle as Analects 15.24 reciprocity.", "Confucian ethics has no universal normative force because it is role based.", "Both systems evaluate obligations solely by consequences." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "Analects 15.24" }, { "source": "source/cline-confucius-rawls-justice" }, { "source": "source/sim-remastering-morals", "locator": "Kant and virtue ethics comparison" }, { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/kant-mill-universal-moral-scope", "type": "comparison", "label": "Kant and Mill: universal moral scope", "summary": "Both ethics ground obligations to others in a general principle, but Kant grounds duty in universal law and equal dignity while Mill grounds it in aggregate welfare and utility.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "tradition/kantian-ethics", "tradition/utilitarianism" ], "rationale": "Both traditions ask how one can justify binding obligations to others without retreating into arbitrary preference, so comparing them clarifies distinct routes to public moral authority.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both present a universalizable standard for action toward others that is meant to regulate everyday and institutional duties. Each framework asks whether treatment of one case can be justified when it applies beyond immediate sentiment, and each thereby links personal conduct to a publicly intelligible norm.", "importantlyDifferent": "Kantian universal duty is a categorical demand grounded in reason: an action has moral worth when its maxim can be a universal law and when persons are never treated merely as means. Millian aggregation in *Utilitarianism* gives priority to overall welfare and can permit trade-offs across persons' happiness, although Mill's account of justice and rights complicates any simple act-by-act arithmetic.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Both thinkers face the same modern concern that moral claims must be fair in principle across persons and not reducible to kinship, class, or private affection. That shared function can generate similar public-facing language about obligation without implying shared foundations.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "high", "strongestCounterargument": "A strict reading can treat the overlap as mostly verbal, because Kant and Mill deploy different answer-spaces: one is deontic and nonconsequentialist at the level of justification, while the other is teleological and outcome-sensitive, so the alleged common function may be too coarse to support direct comparison beyond general moral structure.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "Moral-practical convergence is bounded to the level of how obligations are publicly articulated. Theories diverge more deeply on practical reason, freedom, and personhood commitments that underwrite those obligations.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Kant excludes happiness and consequences from all moral reasoning.", "Mill's utilitarianism is a simple \"greatest happiness\" arithmetic with no role for rights-like constraints.", "The two traditions have the same view of equality because both use universal language." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895" }, { "source": "source/johnson-cureton-kant-moral", "locator": "The Categorical Imperative and autonomy" }, { "source": "source/oneill-acting-principle" }, { "source": "source/korsgaard-creating-kingdom-ends", "locator": "moral law as universal law" }, { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863" }, { "source": "source/driver-history-utilitarianism" }, { "source": "source/crisp-routledge-utilitarianism" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/katha-vs-pali-liberation", "type": "comparison", "label": "Kaṭha immortality and Pāli nibbāna: a shared death question without a shared Self", "summary": "Both reject finite gratification and renewed death as final answers, but the Kaṭha resolves the question through an unborn ātman and Brahman while the Pāli discourses dismantle the premise that a substantial self must survive or be annihilated.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/katha-upanishad", "text/itivuttaka", "text/majjhima-nikaya", "text/samyutta-nikaya" ], "rationale": "The comparison tests a tempting harmonization: shared language of desire's ending, deathlessness, and release can make ātman-Brahman and nibbāna look like two names for one metaphysical destination when the texts organize personal continuity in sharply different ways.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both treat finite sensory gratification and mere longevity as inadequate, connect liberation with release from craving or heart-dwelling desire, and situate the highest goal beyond renewed birth and ordinary mortality.", "importantlyDifferent": "Kaṭha I.2.18 teaches an unborn, eternal death-transcending Self and II.3.14–15 says the mortal attains Brahman. Iti 44 defines liberation in life by the ending of greed, hate, and delusion while feeling remains; SN 44.10 refuses both survival and annihilation of a substantial self, and MN 72 says all four rebirth predicates do not apply. Nibbāna is not identified with an eternal ātman in the cited Pāli texts.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "The texts participate in overlapping ancient north Indian debates about karma, rebirth, renunciation, sensory discipline, and liberation. Kaṭha's uncertain date and strata make a shared cultural-philosophical environment more defensible than a claim that either cited passage copied the other.", "relationshipType": "shared-cultural-environment", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "The shared-environment label may be too broad to explain specific verbal parallels: common soteriological problems can independently produce contrasts between finite pleasure and liberation, while uncertain chronology prevents demonstrating a pathway. Conversely, an emphasis on shared debate can still hide that positive Self-Brahman ontology and Pāli not-self analysis are not minor variants of one doctrine.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "There is moral-practical convergence in restraint, insight, and loosening attachment. Metaphysically they diverge over what, if anything, can be predicated as deathless: realizing an unborn Self and attaining Brahman is not the Pāli refusal of eternalist and annihilationist self-frames.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Nibbāna is the Buddhist name for the Upaniṣadic ātman.", "Anattā is an annihilationist claim that a real self becomes nothing.", "Kaṭha immortality means the ordinary ego lives forever.", "Both traditions condemn every desire.", "Shared deathless language proves direct borrowing." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad I.1.20–29; I.2.18; II.3.14–15" }, { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads", "locator": "pp. 372–403" }, { "source": "source/sujato-iti44", "locator": "Iti 44:2.1–5.6" }, { "source": "source/sujato-mn72", "locator": "MN 72:16.1–20.20" }, { "source": "source/sujato-sn44-10", "locator": "SN 44.10:1.3–2.9" }, { "source": "source/bronkhorst-greater-magadha", "locator": "pp. 139–140, 215–216" }, { "source": "source/collins-nirvana", "locator": "pp. 29–60" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/mencius-documents-heaven-people-quotation", "type": "comparison", "label": "Mencius quotes the Great Declaration on Heaven and the people", "summary": "The nearly identical formulations are not an independent cross-cultural parallel: Mencius explicitly introduces the line as a quotation from the Great Declaration.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "passage/mencius-5a5", "passage/book-of-documents-heaven-sees-hears" ], "rationale": "The duplicated line provides a clear internal control for the Atlas relationship vocabulary: explicit citation should be labeled direct textual dependence, not vague resemblance.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both passages state that Heaven sees and hears as the people see and hear, using popular perception as the expressed medium of Heaven's judgment.", "importantlyDifferent": "The Great Declaration places the formula in King Wu's military-political justification against Shang. Mencius reuses it inside a dialogue about how Shun received rule, embedding an inherited line in a later argument about Heaven, the people, and legitimate succession.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Mencius explicitly says the formula accords with what is written in the Great Declaration, so direct textual dependence is demonstrable even though the precise transmission history of the received Documents remains complex.", "relationshipType": "direct-textual-dependence", "confidence": "high", "strongestCounterargument": "The received wording and boundaries of both texts have transmission histories, so explicit quotation establishes literary dependence on a recognized Great Declaration tradition but does not by itself prove dependence on every feature of the later received Book of Documents edition.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The dependence is textual and political-theological. It does not erase differences between the source's conquest setting and Mencius's later theory of succession and humane rule.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "The matching line is an independent convergence.", "Explicit quotation proves that the entire received Mencius depends on the entire received Book of Documents.", "The line is identical to a modern doctrine of electoral sovereignty." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "Mencius 5A:5" }, { "source": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "locator": "Part V, Book I, The Great Declaration, Part II §7" }, { "source": "source/van-norden-mengzi-2008", "locator": "Mencius 5A:5" }, { "source": "source/nylan-five-confucian-classics-2001", "locator": "Book of Documents chapter" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/mencius-first-samuel-accountable-rule", "type": "comparison", "label": "Mencius and First Samuel: authority under moral judgment", "summary": "Both deny that royal office makes a ruler unaccountable, but they place that limit within different accounts of Heaven, covenant, people, ministers, and dynastic change.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "passage/mencius-1b8", "passage/first-samuel-12-13-15" ], "rationale": "These passages test a widespread claim that ancient kingship was simply absolute by showing two distinct ways a royal office remains answerable to a higher moral order.", "genuinelySimilar": "Neither passage treats possession of kingship as self-justifying. Mencius permits Zhou to be recategorized as a mere fellow after destroying benevolence and righteousness; Samuel acknowledges the people's king while placing king and people under continued obedience to YHWH.", "importantlyDifferent": "Mencius uses a virtue-centered vocabulary that retrospectively explains dynastic overthrow and gives qualified moral agents a role in judging the tyrant. First Samuel embeds monarchy within Israel's covenantal history: YHWH remains king, and both ruler and people are accountable to divine command. Neither passage states a modern electoral theory of popular sovereignty.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "The passages have a functional similarity because each addresses the recurring political problem of how a community can recognize office without making office morally unlimited. No evidence cited here establishes contact or a common textual source.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "The comparison may overstate a shared theory of legitimacy: Mencius is discussing a paradigmatic dynastic tyrant, while Samuel's speech regulates an already accepted monarchy within a distinctive covenant, so their practical authorization to resist may differ more than their accountability language suggests.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The overlap is moral and political; their metaphysical and theological grounds differ between Mencian Heaven, virtue, and popular signs and the Samuel narrative's covenant with YHWH.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Both passages endorse modern democratic revolution.", "First Samuel makes the people's choice the only source of authority.", "Mencius treats every failed policy as automatic forfeiture of ruler status." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "Mencius 1B:8" }, { "source": "source/van-norden-mengzi-2008", "locator": "Mencius 1B:8 and traditional commentaries" }, { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Samuel 12:13-15" }, { "source": "source/mccarthy-1973-inauguration-monarchy", "locator": "pp. 401-412" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/phaedo-vs-paul-resurrection", "type": "comparison", "label": "Phaedo and 1 Corinthians 15: separable soul versus transformed body", "summary": "Both deny that death exhausts human destiny, but Plato's dialogue argues toward a soul liberated from body while Paul proclaims a communal resurrection in which a body is transformed rather than discarded.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/phaedo", "text/first-corinthians" ], "rationale": "Juxtaposing these texts tests the common mistake that immortality of the soul and resurrection of the dead are equivalent mechanisms hidden behind different religious vocabularies.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both connect present moral or philosophical formation to postmortem hope, deny that bodily death nullifies the meaningful life, and reframe bodily death within a larger account of human destiny.", "importantlyDifferent": "The Phaedo defines death as soul-body separation, argues for a soul that pre-exists and survives bodies, includes reincarnation for many souls, and imagines the fully purified living altogether without body. Paul makes Christ the firstfruits of a collective eschatological resurrection: a sōma psychikon is raised as sōma pneumatikon and mortality puts on immortality. Paul retains sōma, so spiritual body is neither a disembodied immortal soul nor mere resuscitation of unchanged flesh.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "The teachings play a comparable existential and moral function by placing death inside a larger account of human destiny. Both also use inherited Mediterranean vocabularies of soul, body, mortality, and divine life, but the present evidence does not establish Paul's direct use of the Phaedo.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "The comparison may be mostly contrast: Plato's dialogue offers philosophical arguments for individual soul survival and liberation from embodiment, whereas Paul proclaims a Christ-grounded communal resurrection and transformation of embodiment. Calling both afterlife teachings can conceal their distinct genres, questions, and temporal structures.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "Moral convergence lies in training present life under the horizon of death. Metaphysically, a separable recurrent soul and a God-raised transformed body are not interchangeable accounts of personal continuity, liberation, or the value of embodiment.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Plato and Paul both teach that an immortal soul goes to heaven.", "Paul's spiritual body means no body.", "Phaedo's practice of dying endorses suicide.", "Phaedo 114 asserts exact literal afterlife geography.", "Psychē in Plato is simply the modern mind." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "locator": "Phaedo 61e–69e; 78b–84b; 102a–107b; 114c–d" }, { "source": "source/lorenz-ancient-soul", "locator": "§3.1" }, { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:20–28, 35–55" }, { "source": "source/martin-corinthian-body", "locator": "pp. 108–130" }, { "source": "source/cook-enspirited-body" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/republic-great-learning-cultivated-rule", "type": "comparison", "label": "Republic and Great Learning: cultivated persons and political order", "summary": "Both make the formation of persons relevant to governing order, but Plato privileges philosophical knowledge and class structure while the Great Learning traces an expanding sequence from self-cultivation through family and state.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "passage/republic-473c-d-philosophers-kings-rest", "passage/great-learning-self-family-state-kingdom" ], "rationale": "These passages are often recruited for meritocratic slogans; placing them together reveals both a real shared concern with formation and the limits of treating their political programs as equivalent.", "genuinelySimilar": "Each rejects the idea that political order can be secured by office or coercion alone. The Republic requires philosophy and political power to meet, while the Great Learning makes cultivated persons and regulated relationships prior stages in ordering the state.", "importantlyDifferent": "Plato's dialogue gives a specialized epistemic and educational role to philosopher-rulers within a differentiated city. The Great Learning presents a recursive moral sequence joining person, family, state, and all under Heaven; its received Confucian setting does not reproduce Plato's class psychology or theory of Forms.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "This is an independent convergence around a recurrent constraint of government: rulers and institutions depend on the character and capacities of persons. The available evidence does not support direct transmission between the texts.", "relationshipType": "independent-convergence", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "The resemblance may be too general to illuminate either work, because nearly every political tradition values some ruler formation; moreover, the Great Learning's relational sequence and the Republic's paradox of philosopher-rule answer different literary and institutional questions.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The convergence concerns moral and educational formation. Plato's epistemology and metaphysics of intelligible order remain distinct from the Great Learning's Confucian account of cultivated virtue and relational ordering.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Both texts propose the same meritocratic civil service.", "Self-cultivation in the Great Learning is equivalent to Platonic knowledge of the Forms.", "Similar concern with educated rulers proves historical influence." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "locator": "Republic 473c-d" }, { "source": "source/schofield-plato-political-philosophy-2006", "locator": "chapter 4, The Rule of Knowledge" }, { "source": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "locator": "Great Learning, text §2" }, { "source": "source/gardner-four-books-2007", "locator": "Great Learning selections and commentary" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/sn56-vs-gita-desire", "type": "comparison", "label": "Early Buddhist craving and the Gītā: cessation and disciplined action", "summary": "Both treat ungoverned appetite as a causal process requiring training, but taṇhā and kāma belong to different accounts of self, duty, rebirth, knowledge, action, and liberation.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/samyutta-nikaya", "text/bhagavad-gita" ], "rationale": "These north Indian texts are often collapsed into a generalized doctrine that desire causes suffering. Their causal analyses can be compared only if the Gītā's action-and-duty setting and the sutta's four-truth-and-rebirth setting remain visible.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both treat ungoverned appetite as a conditioned process rather than a harmless isolated feeling: craving or sustained attention and attachment lead toward further bondage, distress, or collapsed judgment, and both require trained restraint rather than intellectual assent alone.", "importantlyDifferent": "SN 56.11 makes taṇhā the origin of dukkha within a path to cessation and explicitly includes craving for future lives and nonexistence. Gītā 2–3 analyzes saṅga, kāma, and krodha while commanding action without fruit-attachment and grounding mastery in ātman, disciplined understanding, dharma, guṇa theory, yoga, and Krishna. Action itself is not the Gītā's problem.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "Both emerge from ancient north Indian debates about sense-control, karma, renunciation, disciplined action, and liberation. A shared cultural environment is better supported than direct use of either cited passage by the other.", "relationshipType": "shared-cultural-environment", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "Buddhist influence or polemical engagement in the Gītā has been argued, and broad 'shared environment' language can hide asymmetry in chronology. Yet the cited conceptual parallels do not demonstrate direct textual dependence, while the texts' distinct vocabularies and projects rule out identity.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "There is limited moral-psychological convergence on restraining compulsive desire. Metaphysically the early Buddhist conditioned-process framework does not affirm the Gītā's ātman, Krishna, dharma, or guṇas; those differences shape what cessation and liberation can mean.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Buddhism condemns every desire.", "Vibhava-taṇhā is nirvāṇa.", "The Gītā teaches inactivity.", "Kāma and taṇhā are exact equivalents.", "Similar sensory discipline proves textual borrowing." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sn56-11", "locator": "SN 56.11:4.3–4.5" }, { "source": "source/harvey-introduction-buddhism", "locator": "p. 63" }, { "source": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 2.47, 2.62–63, 3.37–41" }, { "source": "source/malinar-bhagavad-gita" }, { "source": "source/upadhyaya-buddhism-gita", "locator": "pp. 163–173", "note": "Argues direct Buddhist impact on Gītā thought; retained as a dated strong thesis and counterweight, not treated as proof of passage-level dependence." }, { "source": "source/framarin-desire-gita", "locator": "pp. 604–617" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/sutta-nipata-matthew-provocation", "type": "comparison", "label": "Sutta Nipāta and Matthew: concern beyond reciprocity", "summary": "Snp 1.8 and Matthew 5 both extend concern beyond friendly reciprocity, but loving-kindness meditation and enemy-love discipleship operate through different practices, narratives, and accounts of liberation.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "passage/sutta-nipata-snp1-8-universal-welfare", "passage/matthew-5-43-48" ], "rationale": "Both passages explicitly address concern beyond ordinary reciprocal bonds—provocation in Snp 1.8 and enemies and persecutors in Matthew 5—while offering a useful case for separating similar moral function from theology.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both reject limiting goodwill to those who treat the practitioner well. Snp 1.8 forbids wishing pain even when provoked and unfolds love without enmity; Matthew commands love and prayer for enemies and persecutors rather than only for those who reciprocate.", "importantlyDifferent": "Snp 1.8 is a contemplative and ethical training for a boundless heart within a path toward extinguishment. Matthew grounds enemy-love in becoming children of the heavenly Father and in divine sun-and-rain impartiality. Their objects, practices, communal settings, and soteriologies do not collapse into one ethic.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "The passages have a functional similarity: each counters cycles of hostility by extending concern beyond reciprocity. No evidence cited here establishes direct contact, borrowing, or a common textual source.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "Snp 1.8's all-being contemplative horizon and Matthew's command toward human enemies answer sufficiently different problems that the shared category may be a modern comparative construction rather than a native equivalence.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The convergence is moral and practical, not metaphysical: Buddhist mettā and release are not divine imitation, and Matthean sonship is not Buddhist mind-training.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Mettā and agapē name the same doctrine.", "Similar enemy-facing ethics prove historical influence.", "Either passage alone settles every Buddhist or Christian debate about collective force." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "locator": "Snp 1.8:3.1–8.4" }, { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 5:43–48" }, { "source": "source/jerryson-juergensmeyer-buddhist-warfare" }, { "source": "source/luz-matthew-1-7-hermeneia-2007" } ] }, { "id": "comparison/zhuangzi-pyrrhonism-epistemic-humility", "type": "comparison", "label": "Zhuangzi and Pyrrhonism: loosening rigid assent through different logics", "summary": "Both traditions interrupt automatic certainty, but for different ends: Zhuangzi weakens grasping by exposing conceptual rigidity, while Pyrrhonism standardizes the suspension of judgment in response to equipollent arguments.", "status": "draft", "compares": [ "text/zhuangzi", "text/outlines-of-pyrrhonism" ], "rationale": "These pairings are often linked by surface talk of skepticism; the comparison tests whether that likeness is practical rather than doctrinal.", "genuinelySimilar": "Both texts unsettle the move from a present perspective or appearance to an unquestionable account of how things are. Zhuangzi does so through shifting standpoints, paradox, and stories; Sextus does so through opposed appearances and arguments that culminate in suspension. The functional overlap is a practiced restraint toward claims that exceed the available standpoint.", "importantlyDifferent": "Zhuangzi does not present Sextus's formal sequence from equipollence to suspension and tranquillity; its stories also engage transformation, language, skill, usefulness, and wandering in ways the Pyrrhonian procedure does not. Sextus distinguishes involuntary appearances from assertions about them and specifies ordinary guides for action without assent. Their textual genres, practical vocabularies, aims, and historical settings remain distinct.", "whySimilarityMightExist": "The resemblance may arise independently from recurrent disputes in which rival speakers claim final authority, while modern translations also make the overlap look stronger by rendering unlike terms through a shared vocabulary of skepticism, perspective, and non-attachment. The cited sources establish no contact or dependence.", "relationshipType": "functional-similarity", "confidence": "moderate", "strongestCounterargument": "A close reading can dissolve the resemblance: Zhuangzi’s anti-constructivist worldview may resemble proto-relativism in rhetoric but does not codify a universal suspension protocol, and Pyrrhonism’s disciplined argument practice is a distinct skeptical method. The pairing risks overstating parallelism if it treats all anti-grasping thought as the same phenomenon.", "moralVsMetaphysical": "The defensible convergence is practical and epistemic: both interrupt premature certainty. It does not establish a shared metaphysics, a common theory of truth, or an identical therapeutic goal.", "commonMisconceptions": [ "Zhuangzi is the same as systematic Greek skepticism.", "Both traditions ask for total withdrawal from all belief in every context.", "Pyrrhonism depends on Daoist influence through the Silk Road route." ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891" }, { "source": "source/ziporyn-zhuangzi-essential" }, { "source": "source/roth-zhuangzi" }, { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899" }, { "source": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus" }, { "source": "source/perin-demands-reason" } ] }, { "id": "passage/acaranga-agency-for-harm", "type": "passage", "label": "Doing, causing, and allowing are named as causes of sin", "summary": "The opening lecture frames moral agency in first-person terms that include direct action, causing another to act, and allowing another's action.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/acaranga-sutra", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 1, Lesson 1, §§4–7 (Jacobi SBE 22, pp. 2–3)", "translation": "Hermann Jacobi (1884), Sacred Books of the East 22", "quotationSource": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 1, Lesson 1, §§4–7; pp. 2–3", "note": "Verified against the Sacred Texts transcription and scan-linked edition." } ] }, { "id": "passage/acaranga-alms-living-food", "type": "passage", "label": "Mendicant alms rules inspect food for living beings", "summary": "The rule turns non-injury into detailed food inspection and rejection practices for male and female mendicants, showing the special rigor of houseless discipline.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/acaranga-sutra", "locator": "Book II, Lecture 1, Lesson 1, §§1–4 (Jacobi SBE 22, pp. 88–89)", "translation": "Hermann Jacobi (1884), Sacred Books of the East 22", "quotationSource": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "locator": "Book II, Lecture 1, Lesson 1, §§1–4; pp. 88–89", "note": "Verified against the Sacred Texts transcription and scan-linked edition." } ] }, { "id": "passage/acaranga-neither-inflict-cause-consent", "type": "passage", "label": "The sage neither inflicts, orders, nor assents to pain", "summary": "A disciplinary passage expands abstention beyond direct injury to ordering or assenting to injury across living bodies in every region.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/acaranga-sutra", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 7, Lesson 1, §§3–5 (Jacobi SBE 22, pp. 62–64)", "translation": "Hermann Jacobi (1884), Sacred Books of the East 22", "quotationSource": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 7, Lesson 1, §5; pp. 63–64", "note": "Verified against the Sacred Texts transcription and scan-linked edition." } ] }, { "id": "passage/acaranga-unchangeable-law-noninjury", "type": "passage", "label": "The law forbids slaying, violence, abuse, torment, and expulsion", "summary": "The text extends its prohibition across categories of breathing, existing, living, and sentient creatures, then links fidelity to that law with vigilant exertion.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/acaranga-sutra", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 4, Lesson 1, §§1–3 (Jacobi SBE 22, pp. 36–37)", "translation": "Hermann Jacobi (1884), Sacred Books of the East 22", "quotationSource": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 4, Lesson 1, §§1–3; pp. 36–37", "note": "Verified against the Sacred Texts transcription and scan-linked edition." } ] }, { "id": "passage/an-3-65-harm-and-welfare", "type": "passage", "label": "Test teachings by harm and welfare", "summary": "The discourse evaluates greed, hatred, and delusion as causes of harm, then explicitly inverts to affirm non-greed, non-hate, and non-delusion when they yield welfare and good.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/anguttara-nikaya", "locator": "AN 3.65:5.1–8.1; 26.2–26.3 (SuttaCentral Bilara segments)", "translation": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2020), SuttaCentral", "quotationSource": "source/sujato-an3-65", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-an3-65", "locator": "AN 3.65:5.1–8.1; 26.2–26.3", "note": "Verified against SuttaCentral's published Bilara translation data; square brackets mark omitted intervening examples." } ] }, { "id": "passage/an-3-65-hearsay-authority", "type": "passage", "label": "Do not rely on authority alone", "summary": "The discourse denies that transmission, scripture, reasoning, apparent competence, or teacher-status is sufficient by itself, then immediately supplies ethical and practical tests involving skill, blame, wise criticism, harm, and suffering.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/anguttara-nikaya", "locator": "AN 3.65:4.1–4.3 (SuttaCentral Bilara segments)", "translation": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2020), SuttaCentral", "quotationSource": "source/sujato-an3-65", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-an3-65", "locator": "AN 3.65:4.1–4.3", "note": "Verified against SuttaCentral's published Bilara translation data." } ] }, { "id": "passage/analects-1-1", "type": "passage", "label": "Learning by steady self-cultivation in friendship", "summary": "Confucian cultivation is presented as a lifelong disciplined practice, shaping character and flourishing through sustained effort rather than sporadic insight.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/analects", "locator": "Analects 1.1", "translation": "James Legge (1893)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-analects-1893", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "Analects 1.1" } ] }, { "id": "passage/analects-12-1", "type": "passage", "label": "Virtue as self-discipline aligned with propriety", "summary": "Confucian moral growth begins with disciplined self-restraint and propriety, a practical route toward social and personal integrity.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/analects", "locator": "Analects 12.1", "translation": "James Legge (1893)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-analects-1893", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "Analects 12.1" } ] }, { "id": "passage/analects-12-2", "type": "passage", "label": "Reciprocity in public and private conduct", "summary": "Confucius connects humane conduct with reverence, care in public service, and refusing to impose on others what one would reject for oneself.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/analects", "locator": "12.2", "translation": "James Legge (1893)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-analects-1893", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "12.2" } ] }, { "id": "passage/analects-15-24", "type": "passage", "label": "Reciprocity as a lifelong practice", "summary": "Asked for one lifelong rule of practice, Confucius answers with reciprocity and a negative formulation of the golden rule.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/analects", "locator": "15.24 (15.23 in Legge's chapter numbering)", "translation": "James Legge (1893)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-analects-1893", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "15.24 (15.23 in Legge's chapter numbering)" } ] }, { "id": "passage/analects-4-15", "type": "passage", "label": "An all-pervading unity as ethical orientation", "summary": "Confucian doctrine is framed as an integrative moral vision, where coherence of self and society supports humane flourishing.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/analects", "locator": "Analects 4.15", "translation": "James Legge (1893)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-analects-1893", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "Analects 4.15" } ] }, { "id": "passage/analects-6-30", "type": "passage", "label": "Self-establishment follows from helping others", "summary": "Flourishing is presented relationally: one stabilizes oneself through the work of guiding and elevating others, not through isolated success.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/analects", "locator": "Analects 6.30", "translation": "James Legge (1893)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-analects-1893", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893", "locator": "Analects 6.30" } ] }, { "id": "passage/apollodorus-1-7-2-deucalion", "type": "passage", "label": "Prometheus warns Deucalion to build a chest", "summary": "The Greek rescue begins when Deucalion acts on Prometheus's advice before Zeus's destructive decision is carried out; the same section limits the flood to most of Greece and preserves other mountain survivors.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/library-of-apollodorus", "locator": "Library 1.7.2", "translation": "James George Frazer (1921), Loeb Classical Library 121; public-domain text verified in Perseus", "quotationSource": "source/frazer-apollodorus", "citations": [ { "source": "source/frazer-apollodorus", "locator": "Library 1.7.2" } ] }, { "id": "passage/aristotle-politics-1253a2-3", "type": "passage", "label": "Man is by nature a political animal", "summary": "Aristotle states that political association belongs to human nature and that lacking it places a person outside ordinary human form.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/aristotle-politics", "locator": "Politics I.2, 1253a2-1253a3 (Jowett 1885)", "translation": "Benjamin Jowett (1885)", "quotationSource": "source/jowett-politics-1885", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-politics-1885", "locator": "Politics I.2 1253a2-3" } ] }, { "id": "passage/aristotle-politics-1279a25-31", "type": "passage", "label": "Constitutions are true when they serve common interest", "summary": "Aristotle distinguishes true governments from their perversions by whether they pursue the common interest or rulers' private interest.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/aristotle-politics", "locator": "Politics III.7, 1279a25-31 (Jowett 1885)", "translation": "Benjamin Jowett (1885)", "quotationSource": "source/jowett-politics-1885", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-politics-1885", "locator": "Politics III.7 1279a25-31" } ] }, { "id": "passage/atrahasis-human-noise", "type": "passage", "label": "Human clamor keeps Enlil awake", "summary": "Atrahasis's repeated trigger is human rigmu—translated here as noise or racket—within a narrative of multiplication. The term's exact force is debated and should not be reduced to mere divine irritability.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/atrahasis", "locator": "Tablet I, obverse vii (Dalley, p. 19)", "translation": "Stephanie Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia (1989); brief attributed excerpt", "quotationSource": "source/dalley-myths-mesopotamia", "citations": [ { "source": "source/dalley-myths-mesopotamia", "locator": "Tablet I, obverse vii, p. 19" }, { "source": "source/lambert-millard-atrahasis", "note": "Critical-edition control." } ] }, { "id": "passage/book-of-documents-heaven-sees-hears", "type": "passage", "label": "Great Declaration ties Heaven’s view and hearing to the people", "summary": "A concise political-theological formula stating that Heaven’s responsiveness is mediated through the people’s condition.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/book-of-documents", "locator": "Shû King, Part V, Book I, The Great Declaration, Part II §7 (Legge 1879)", "translation": "James Legge (1879)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "locator": "Part V, Book I, The Great Declaration, Part II §7" } ] }, { "id": "passage/book-of-documents-taijia-mandate-not-constant", "type": "passage", "label": "The Charge to Tâi Kiâ makes Heaven's appointment conditional", "summary": "The warning ties preservation of the throne to constancy in virtue rather than dynastic entitlement alone.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/book-of-documents", "locator": "Shû King, Part IV, Book V, The Charge to Tâi Kiâ, Section 1 §2 (Legge 1879)", "translation": "James Legge (1879)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "locator": "Part IV, Book V, The Charge to Tâi Kiâ, Section 1 §2" } ] }, { "id": "passage/confessions-8-5-10", "type": "passage", "label": "Indulged desire hardens into necessity", "summary": "Augustine describes a chain made through agency and then experienced as bondage: perverse willing becomes lust, indulgence becomes custom, and unresisted custom becomes felt necessity.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII.5.10", "translation": "J. G. Pilkington (1876)", "quotationSource": "source/pilkington-confessions", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pilkington-confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII.5.10" } ] }, { "id": "passage/confessions-8-5-12", "type": "passage", "label": "Grace answers the bound will's plea", "summary": "Augustine closes the diagnosis of a will bound by habit with a Pauline cry for deliverance and an explicitly Christian answer: grace through Jesus Christ, not autonomous self-command.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII.5.12", "translation": "J. G. Pilkington (1876)", "quotationSource": "source/pilkington-confessions", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pilkington-confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII.5.12" } ] }, { "id": "passage/confessions-8-9-21", "type": "passage", "label": "The mind commands itself and is resisted", "summary": "Augustine rejects a simple picture of transparent self-command: bodily motion can obey at once while willing remains partial, fractured by truth pulling one way and custom another.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII.9.21", "translation": "J. G. Pilkington (1876)", "quotationSource": "source/pilkington-confessions", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pilkington-confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII.9.21" } ] }, { "id": "passage/daodejing-1-naming", "type": "passage", "label": "Limitations of naming at the opening", "summary": "The opening line is framed as a methodological warning: spoken formulations can orient attention, but they cannot fully stand in for the source they seek to describe.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/daodejing", "locator": "Chapter 1.1", "translation": "James Legge (1891)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "locator": "Chapter 1.1", "note": "Verification URL: https://sacred-texts.com/tao/sbe39/sbe39008.htm" } ] }, { "id": "passage/daodejing-29-world-sacred-vessel", "type": "passage", "label": "Non-coercive governance and political restraint", "summary": "The passage is read as political-philosophical counsel: governing by forceful grasping is presented as self-undermining, while order is treated as a living relation that is damaged by possessive control.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/daodejing", "locator": "Chapter 29.1", "translation": "James Legge (1891)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "locator": "Chapter 29.1", "note": "Verification URL: https://sacred-texts.com/tao/sbe39/sbe39036.htm" } ] }, { "id": "passage/daodejing-71-knowing-not-knowing", "type": "passage", "label": "Knowing through disciplined non-knowledge", "summary": "This reading treats the verse as an epistemic ethic: the most refined state is awareness of one’s limits, and certainty presented without that humility is diagnostically flawed.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/daodejing", "locator": "Chapter 71.1", "translation": "James Legge (1891)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "locator": "Chapter 71.1", "note": "Verification URL: https://sacred-texts.com/tao/sbe39/sbe39078.htm" } ] }, { "id": "passage/dhammapada-277-278", "type": "passage", "label": "All conditioned things are impermanent; all are dukkha", "summary": "Two of the three 'marks of existence' verses: impermanence and unsatisfactoriness are structural features of all conditioned things, and seeing this clearly is the path out of suffering.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/dhammapada", "locator": "Dhammapada 277–278", "translation": "F. Max Müller (1881, Sacred Books of the East vol. X; public domain)", "quotationSource": "source/mueller-dhammapada", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mueller-dhammapada", "locator": "vv. 277–278" } ] }, { "id": "passage/epictetus-discourses-1-1", "type": "passage", "label": "Epictetus on the limits of unreflective faculties", "summary": "Epictetus opens by distinguishing faculties that cannot inspect their own use from the rational faculty that can evaluate them, making reflective judgment central to Stoic training.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/epictetus-discourses", "locator": "Discourses I.1", "translation": "George Long (1877)", "quotationSource": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Discourses I.1" } ] }, { "id": "passage/epictetus-discourses-1-2", "type": "passage", "label": "What is reasonable depends on the situation", "summary": "Epictetus argues that what counts as reasonable depends on a person's considered valuation of the situation, linking flourishing to disciplined judgment rather than a context-free rule.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/epictetus-discourses", "locator": "Discourses I.2", "translation": "George Long (1877)", "quotationSource": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Discourses I.2" } ] }, { "id": "passage/epictetus-encheiridion-1", "type": "passage", "label": "Some things are up to us and others are not", "summary": "Epictetus locates responsible agency in judgments and motivational acts, not in securing body, property, reputation, or office; 'in our power' should not be inflated into total control over inner events.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/epictetus-encheiridion", "locator": "Encheiridion 1.1 (Long 1877, section I, opening paragraph)", "translation": "George Long (1877)", "quotationSource": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Encheiridion 1.1" } ] }, { "id": "passage/epictetus-encheiridion-2", "type": "passage", "label": "Suspend desire for the present", "summary": "The beginner is told to withdraw desire temporarily and to exercise impulse with reservation; the qualification blocks the modern caricature that mature Stoicism simply wants nothing.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/epictetus-encheiridion", "locator": "Encheiridion 2.1–2.2 (Long 1877, section II)", "translation": "George Long (1877)", "quotationSource": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Encheiridion 2.1–2.2" } ] }, { "id": "passage/first-corinthians-15-20-26", "type": "passage", "label": "Christ's resurrection begins death's defeat", "summary": "Paul makes Christ the firstfruits and pattern of a future resurrection, then names death—not embodiment—as the last enemy to be destroyed.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/first-corinthians", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:20–26", "translation": "King James Version (1611; modernized standard text)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:20–26" } ] }, { "id": "passage/first-corinthians-15-42-44", "type": "passage", "label": "The raised body is transformed", "summary": "Paul contrasts corruption with incorruption, dishonor with glory, weakness with power, and the present psychical body with a future spiritual body while retaining the noun body.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/first-corinthians", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:42–44", "translation": "King James Version (1611; modernized standard text)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:42–44" } ] }, { "id": "passage/first-corinthians-15-51-55", "type": "passage", "label": "Mortality puts on immortality", "summary": "Paul expects both living and dead to be changed at the last trumpet; immortality is a divinely effected transformation, not an already possessed escape of a naturally immortal soul.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/first-corinthians", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:51–55", "translation": "King James Version (1611; modernized standard text)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15:51–55" } ] }, { "id": "passage/first-samuel-12-13-15", "type": "passage", "label": "Samuel places king and people under conditional obedience", "summary": "Samuel acknowledges the people's chosen king while making continued fidelity to YHWH the condition for king and people alike.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/first-samuel", "locator": "1 Samuel 12:13-15", "translation": "King James Version (1611)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Samuel 12:13-15" }, { "source": "source/mccarthy-1973-inauguration-monarchy", "locator": "1 Samuel 12:13-15" } ] }, { "id": "passage/first-samuel-8-7-18", "type": "passage", "label": "Rejection and warning over demands for kingship", "summary": "Samuel frames the request for a king as a rejection of YHWH while warning the elders of practical burdens.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/first-samuel", "locator": "1 Samuel 8:7, 11-18", "translation": "King James Version (1611)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Samuel 8:7, 11-18" }, { "source": "source/mccarthy-1973-inauguration-monarchy", "locator": "1 Samuel 8:7, 11-18" } ] }, { "id": "passage/genesis-18-1-8", "type": "passage", "label": "Abraham runs to welcome three visitors", "summary": "Abraham responds to three men with water, shade, bread, a calf, dairy, and personal service; the rapid action and abundant meal exceed his modest initial offer.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/genesis", "locator": "Genesis 18:1–8", "translation": "King James Version (1611); wording verified against Project Gutenberg eBook 10", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 18:1–8" } ] }, { "id": "passage/genesis-19-1-8", "type": "passage", "label": "Lot receives visitors amid threatened violence", "summary": "Lot urges two angels under his roof and feeds them, then protects the guests by offering his daughters to a violent crowd—making the episode ethically resistant to any simple celebration of the host.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/genesis", "locator": "Genesis 19:1–8", "translation": "King James Version (1611); wording verified against Project Gutenberg eBook 10", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 19:1–8" } ] }, { "id": "passage/genesis-6-5-7", "type": "passage", "label": "Wickedness, grief, and the decision to destroy", "summary": "Genesis gives the flood an ethical cause and makes divine grief part of the judgment: pervasive human evil leads the creator to regret making humanity.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/genesis", "locator": "Genesis 6:5–7", "translation": "King James Version (1611); wording verified against the 1769 text on Wikisource and Project Gutenberg eBook 10", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 6:5–7" } ] }, { "id": "passage/genesis-9-11-13", "type": "passage", "label": "The no-more-flood covenant and its sign", "summary": "The post-flood resolution becomes an explicit covenant not only with Noah but with every living creature, marked by the bow in the cloud.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/genesis", "locator": "Genesis 9:11–13", "translation": "King James Version (1611); wording verified against Project Gutenberg eBook 10", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 9:11–13" } ] }, { "id": "passage/gilgamesh-11-160-161", "type": "passage", "label": "The gods gather over the flood survivor's offering", "summary": "A shared sacrifice-and-savor sequence also visible in Genesis, but here the plural gods assemble like flies—a compact image of divine hunger and dependence on human cult.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/epic-of-gilgamesh", "locator": "Standard Babylonian Tablet XI, lines 160–161 (Thompson's numbering), printed p. 53", "translation": "R. Campbell Thompson (1928), public-domain translation; wording and locator checked against the printed scan; George 2003 used as modern critical control", "quotationSource": "source/thompson-gilgamesh", "citations": [ { "source": "source/thompson-gilgamesh", "locator": "Tablet XI, lines 160–161, p. 53" }, { "source": "source/george-babylonian-gilgamesh", "locator": "Standard Babylonian Tablet XI, lines 160–161", "note": "Modern critical control; not the wording quoted." } ] }, { "id": "passage/gita-2-47", "type": "passage", "label": "Action without attachment to its fruit", "summary": "The verse denies entitlement to outcomes while also rejecting attachment to inaction; detachment is a discipline of action, not permission to withdraw from responsibility.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 2.47 (Telang 1882, p. 48)", "translation": "Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang (1882)", "quotationSource": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "citations": [ { "source": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 2.47, p. 48" } ] }, { "id": "passage/gita-2-62-63", "type": "passage", "label": "Attention becomes attachment, desire, anger, and ruin", "summary": "The Gītā models desire as a causal sequence beginning in sustained attention to sense objects, not as a free-floating substance that can be removed by a slogan.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 2.62–63 (Telang 1882, pp. 50–51)", "translation": "Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang (1882)", "quotationSource": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "citations": [ { "source": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 2.62–63, pp. 50–51" } ] }, { "id": "passage/gita-3-37-41", "type": "passage", "label": "Desire and wrath obscure knowledge", "summary": "Kāma and krodha arise from rajas, occupy senses, mind, and understanding, and are countered first through sense-restraint; the analysis belongs to the Gītā's guṇa and self framework.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 3.37–41 (Telang 1882, p. 57)", "translation": "Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang (1882)", "quotationSource": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "citations": [ { "source": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 3.37–41, p. 57" } ] }, { "id": "passage/great-learning-self-family-state-kingdom", "type": "passage", "label": "Great Learning maps cultivation from person to state", "summary": "The received text links ordering the state to regulating the family and cultivating the person.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/great-learning", "locator": "Great Learning, text §2 (Legge 1893)", "translation": "James Legge (1893)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "locator": "Great Learning, text §2" } ] }, { "id": "passage/great-learning-three-aims", "type": "passage", "label": "Great Learning states its three aims", "summary": "The opening formulation links exemplary virtue, social renovation, and resting in highest excellence.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/great-learning", "locator": "Great Learning, text §1 (Legge 1893)", "translation": "James Legge (1893)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "locator": "Great Learning, text §1" } ] }, { "id": "passage/groundwork-duty-moral-worth-4-397", "type": "passage", "label": "Duty as the occasion for moral worth", "summary": "Kant introduces duty as the way to isolate a good will and its moral worth from expediency.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/groundwork-metaphysics-morals", "locator": "Ak 4:397", "translation": "Thomas Kingsmill Abbott (1895)", "quotationSource": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "Ak 4:397" } ] }, { "id": "passage/groundwork-good-will-4-393", "type": "passage", "label": "Only a good will is good without limitation", "summary": "Kant defines the only thing good without qualification as a good will.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/groundwork-metaphysics-morals", "locator": "Ak 4:393", "translation": "Thomas Kingsmill Abbott (1895)", "quotationSource": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "Ak 4:393" } ] }, { "id": "passage/groundwork-humanity-formula-4-429", "type": "passage", "label": "Humanity as an end in itself", "summary": "Kant adds humanity and rational nature as objective ends in each person.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/groundwork-metaphysics-morals", "locator": "Ak 4:429", "translation": "Thomas Kingsmill Abbott (1895)", "quotationSource": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "Ak 4:429" } ] }, { "id": "passage/groundwork-kingdom-ends-4-433", "type": "passage", "label": "Kingdom of ends and legislative morality", "summary": "Kant defines a community of rational beings united under universal moral laws.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/groundwork-metaphysics-morals", "locator": "Ak 4:433-434", "translation": "Thomas Kingsmill Abbott (1895)", "quotationSource": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "Ak 4:433-434" } ] }, { "id": "passage/groundwork-universal-law-4-421", "type": "passage", "label": "Action from a maxim that could be universal law", "summary": "Kant’s universal-law formulation requires actions to be legislated as universal law.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/groundwork-metaphysics-morals", "locator": "Ak 4:421", "translation": "Thomas Kingsmill Abbott (1895)", "quotationSource": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "locator": "Ak 4:421" } ] }, { "id": "passage/hebrews-13-2", "type": "passage", "label": "Some hosts received angels unawares", "summary": "A compact exhortation turns scriptural angel-host narratives into a communal practice of philoxenia, without promising that every guest is literally an angel or that hospitality earns supernatural reward.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/epistle-to-hebrews", "locator": "Hebrews 13:2", "translation": "King James Version (1611); wording verified against Project Gutenberg eBook 10", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Hebrews 13:2" } ] }, { "id": "passage/iti-44-two-elements", "type": "passage", "label": "Nibbāna in life and without residue", "summary": "The discourse distinguishes the extinguishment of greed, hate, and delusion while the senses remain from final extinguishment without residue; it does not posit two unrelated destinations or deny an awakened person's bodily pain.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/itivuttaka", "locator": "Iti 44:2.1–6.4 (PTS Iti 38–39; SuttaCentral segments)", "translation": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2020)", "quotationSource": "source/sujato-iti44", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-iti44", "locator": "Iti 44:2.1–6.4" } ] }, { "id": "passage/job-38-whirlwind", "type": "passage", "label": "God answers Job out of the whirlwind", "summary": "The opening of the divine speeches: God responds to Job's demand for justice not with an explanation but with questions about the founding of the world — reframing rather than answering the problem.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/book-of-job", "locator": "Job 38:1–4", "translation": "King James Version (1611; public domain)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Job 38:1–4" } ] }, { "id": "passage/job-42-7", "type": "passage", "label": "Ye have not spoken of me the thing that is right", "summary": "The epilogue's sting: after the whirlwind speeches, God rebukes the friends — the defenders of retribution theology — and declares that Job, the protester, has spoken rightly. The verse that makes any tidy retributive reading of the book untenable.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/book-of-job", "locator": "Job 42:7", "translation": "King James Version (1611; public domain)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Job 42:7" } ] }, { "id": "passage/john-9-man-born-blind", "type": "passage", "label": "Who did sin, this man, or his parents?", "summary": "The disciples voice the retribution assumption out loud — congenital blindness must be someone's fault — and Jesus denies both options, redirecting from backward-looking blame to forward-looking divine purpose.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/gospel-of-john", "locator": "John 9:1–3 (quotation from vv. 2–3)", "translation": "King James Version (1611; public domain)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "John 9:2–3" }, { "source": "source/brown-john", "note": "Commentary on the pericope and its relation to retribution assumptions." } ] }, { "id": "passage/katha-1-1-26-28", "type": "passage", "label": "Naciketas refuses wealth, longevity, and pleasure", "summary": "Naciketas rejects Yama's diversionary gifts because sensory vigor, wealth, long life, and their pleasures are impermanent; he keeps the boon concerning what death cannot settle by extension of lifespan.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad I.1.26–28 (First Adhyāya, First Vallī; Müller 1884, pp. 6–7)", "translation": "F. Max Müller (1884)", "quotationSource": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad I.1.26–28, pp. 6–7" } ] }, { "id": "passage/katha-1-2-18", "type": "passage", "label": "The knowing Self is unborn and undying", "summary": "Yama identifies the death-transcending principle as unborn, eternal, and not destroyed with the body; Müller's supplied parenthetical Self is preserved but marked as a translation decision.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad I.2.18 (First Adhyāya, Second Vallī; Müller 1884, pp. 10–11)", "translation": "F. Max Müller (1884)", "quotationSource": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad I.2.18, pp. 10–11" } ] }, { "id": "passage/katha-2-3-14-15", "type": "passage", "label": "Desires cease and the mortal becomes immortal", "summary": "The teaching culminates in release from heart-dwelling desires and heart-ties here, described as immortality and attaining Brahman rather than as indefinite biological longevity.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad II.3.14–15 / continuous Vallī numbering 6.14–15 (Müller 1884, p. 23)", "translation": "F. Max Müller (1884)", "quotationSource": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad II.3.14–15 / 6.14–15, p. 23" } ] }, { "id": "passage/leviticus-19-33-34", "type": "passage", "label": "Love the resident stranger as yourself", "summary": "The gēr living in the land must not be oppressed but treated like the native-born and loved as oneself, grounded in Israel's own memory of estrangement in Egypt.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/leviticus", "locator": "Leviticus 19:33–34", "translation": "King James Version (1611); wording verified against Project Gutenberg eBook 10", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Leviticus 19:33–34" } ] }, { "id": "passage/ludlul-2-33-38", "type": "passage", "label": "Who knows the will of the gods in heaven?", "summary": "The poem's philosophical core: the sufferer, having done everything piety demands, concludes that human beings cannot even know what the gods want — divine standards may inversely mirror human ones. The most radical statement of divine inscrutability in Mesopotamian literature.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/ludlul-bel-nemeqi", "locator": "Tablet II, lines 33–38 (Lambert's edition)", "translation": "W. G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (1960); brief quotation for scholarly comparison. Line numbering follows Lambert; Annus & Lenzi (2010) differs slightly", "quotationSource": "source/lambert-bwl", "citations": [ { "source": "source/lambert-bwl", "locator": "Tablet II, lines 33–38" }, { "source": "source/annus-lenzi-ludlul", "note": "Current standard edition for cross-checking text and line numbers." } ] }, { "id": "passage/matthew-26-47-56", "type": "passage", "label": "The arrest in Gethsemane", "summary": "The narrative of Jesus’ arrest shows coordinated betrayal, a disciple’s attempted violence, Jesus’ sword command, and his appeal to fulfilled Scripture.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/gospel-of-matthew", "locator": "Matthew 26:47-56", "translation": "King James Version (1611; modernized standard text)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 26:47-56" } ] }, { "id": "passage/matthew-5-38-42", "type": "passage", "label": "Eye for eye and nonretaliation", "summary": "The saying answers an eye-for-eye maxim with a sequence about nonresistance, the other cheek, relinquishing a cloak, a second mile, giving, and lending.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/gospel-of-matthew", "locator": "Matthew 5:38-42", "translation": "King James Version (1611; modernized standard text)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 5:38-42" } ] }, { "id": "passage/matthew-5-43-48", "type": "passage", "label": "Love enemies and pray for enemies", "summary": "The saying extends love and prayer to enemies and persecutors, then points to sun and rain given to both evil and good before its closing call to perfection.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/gospel-of-matthew", "locator": "Matthew 5:43-48", "translation": "King James Version (1611; modernized standard text)", "quotationSource": "source/kjv-bible", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 5:43-48" } ] }, { "id": "passage/meditations-4-3-judgment", "type": "passage", "label": "Retire inwardly before searching outward comforts", "summary": "Long’s rendering of Book IV.3 teaches that inward recollection is the primary refuge and that inner tranquillity depends on ordered mind, not external retreat.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/marcus-aurelius-meditations", "locator": "Book 4.3", "translation": "George Long (1862)", "quotationSource": "source/long-meditations-1862", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-meditations-1862", "locator": "Book 4.3" } ] }, { "id": "passage/meditations-8-47-opinion", "type": "passage", "label": "Disturbance comes from judgment, not events", "summary": "Book VIII.47 places agency in one’s own judgment and cautions against adding narrative or self-judgment that intensifies disturbance.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/marcus-aurelius-meditations", "locator": "Book 8.47", "translation": "George Long (1862)", "quotationSource": "source/long-meditations-1862", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-meditations-1862", "locator": "Book 8.47" } ] }, { "id": "passage/mencius-1a1", "type": "passage", "label": "Mencius limits counsel to benevolence and righteousness", "summary": "In response to the request to discuss profit, Mencius says his counsel is confined to benevolence and righteousness.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/mencius", "locator": "Mencius 1A:1", "translation": "James Legge (1895)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "1A:1" } ] }, { "id": "passage/mencius-1b8", "type": "passage", "label": "Mencius recategorizes the tyrant as a mere fellow", "summary": "After naming violations of benevolence and righteousness, Mencius says Zhou was cut off as a mere fellow rather than put to death as a sovereign.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/mencius", "locator": "Mencius 1B:8", "translation": "James Legge (1895)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "1B:8" } ] }, { "id": "passage/mencius-5a5", "type": "passage", "label": "Heaven tracks the people’s moral world", "summary": "Mencius links Heaven’s judgment to the people’s own perception and hearing.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/mencius", "locator": "Mencius 5A:5", "translation": "James Legge (1895)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "5A:5" } ] }, { "id": "passage/menoeceus-death-nothing", "type": "passage", "label": "Epicurean indifference to death as flourishing", "summary": "Epicurus reframes mortality as morally neutral to the living life, releasing fear so that flourishing can be pursued without existential paralysis.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/letter-to-menoeceus", "locator": "Letter to Menoeceus 124–125", "translation": "R. D. Hicks (1925)", "quotationSource": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "citations": [ { "source": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "locator": "Letter to Menoeceus 124–125" } ] }, { "id": "passage/menoeceus-pleasure-goal", "type": "passage", "label": "Pleasure as mark and aim of a happy life", "summary": "This passage makes affective well-being central: flourishing is measured by stable pleasure understood as the endpoint of wise living.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/letter-to-menoeceus", "locator": "Letter to Menoeceus 128–129", "translation": "R. D. Hicks (1925)", "quotationSource": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "citations": [ { "source": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "locator": "Letter to Menoeceus 128–129" } ] }, { "id": "passage/mn-72-fire-fuel", "type": "passage", "label": "A quenched fire has exhausted its fuel", "summary": "The fire simile shifts attention from a hidden destination to sustaining conditions: once grass and logs are exhausted, asking where the fire went misapplies directional categories.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/majjhima-nikaya", "locator": "MN 72:19.9–19.18 (PTS MN I 487; SuttaCentral segments)", "translation": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2018)", "quotationSource": "source/sujato-mn72", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-mn72", "locator": "MN 72:19.9–19.18" } ] }, { "id": "passage/mn-72-four-predicates", "type": "passage", "label": "Four postmortem answers do not apply", "summary": "Asked where a liberated mendicant is reborn, the Buddha refuses reborn, not reborn, both, and neither; the passage blocks converting apophatic refusal into either eternal personal survival or annihilation.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/majjhima-nikaya", "locator": "MN 72:16.1–16.8 (PTS MN I 486; SuttaCentral segments)", "translation": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2018)", "quotationSource": "source/sujato-mn72", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-mn72", "locator": "MN 72:16.1–16.8" } ] }, { "id": "passage/nicomachean-ethics-1-1", "type": "passage", "label": "Aristotle frames every pursuit by its good", "summary": "This claim grounds flourishing as teleology: ethical practice asks how ends are judged by goods, making the good a central criterion for a life well lived.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/nicomachean-ethics", "locator": "I.1, 1094a1–3", "translation": "W. D. Ross (1925)", "quotationSource": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "I.1, 1094a1–3" } ] }, { "id": "passage/nicomachean-ethics-1-7", "type": "passage", "label": "Human flourishing is virtuous activity of the soul", "summary": "Aristotle identifies human flourishing with ongoing virtuous activity, so moral excellence is understood as a lived practice rather than a static state.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/nicomachean-ethics", "locator": "I.7, 1098a16–18", "translation": "W. D. Ross (1925)", "quotationSource": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "I.7, 1098a16–18" } ] }, { "id": "passage/nicomachean-ethics-2-1", "type": "passage", "label": "Virtue is developed through habituated character", "summary": "The passage links flourishing to repeated formation of character, emphasizing that ethical excellence is cultivated through practice before it is fully possessed.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/nicomachean-ethics", "locator": "II.1, 1103a14–18", "translation": "W. D. Ross (1925)", "quotationSource": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "II.1, 1103a14–18" } ] }, { "id": "passage/nicomachean-ethics-5-1", "type": "passage", "label": "Justice as a state of character", "summary": "Aristotle begins his inquiry by treating justice as a state of character that disposes people to act justly and wish for what is just.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/nicomachean-ethics", "locator": "5.1", "translation": "W. D. Ross (1925)", "quotationSource": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "5.1" } ] }, { "id": "passage/nicomachean-ethics-5-3", "type": "passage", "label": "Distributive and rectifying justice", "summary": "Aristotle distinguishes justice in distributions from justice that rectifies transactions between people.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/nicomachean-ethics", "locator": "5.3", "translation": "W. D. Ross (1925)", "quotationSource": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "5.3" } ] }, { "id": "passage/nicomachean-ethics-8-1", "type": "passage", "label": "Friendship as a condition of a good life", "summary": "Aristotle treats friendship as constitutive of flourishing, arguing that even universal goods are insufficient for a livable life without relational bonds.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/nicomachean-ethics", "locator": "VIII.1, 1155a3–5", "translation": "W. D. Ross (1925)", "quotationSource": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "VIII.1, 1155a3–5" } ] }, { "id": "passage/odyssey-1-120-124", "type": "passage", "label": "Telemachus feeds the stranger before questioning", "summary": "Telemachus welcomes Athena in mortal disguise, promising food before asking what the stranger needs; the episode supplies one instance of the epic's recurrent hospitality sequence.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/odyssey", "locator": "Odyssey 1.123–124", "translation": "A. T. Murray (1919)", "quotationSource": "source/murray-odyssey", "citations": [ { "source": "source/murray-odyssey", "locator": "Odyssey 1.123–124" } ] }, { "id": "passage/odyssey-9-266-271", "type": "passage", "label": "Zeus avenges strangers and suppliants", "summary": "Odysseus invokes Zeus's protection of strangers against Polyphemus; the Cyclops's rejection shows xenia through violation, sanction, and danger rather than sentiment alone.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/odyssey", "locator": "Odyssey 9.270–271", "translation": "A. T. Murray (1919)", "quotationSource": "source/murray-odyssey", "citations": [ { "source": "source/murray-odyssey", "locator": "Odyssey 9.270–271" } ] }, { "id": "passage/on-liberty-harm-principle-1", "type": "passage", "label": "Mill's harm principle", "summary": "Mill states that coercion is justified only to prevent harm to others, and that freedom over oneself is absolute.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/on-liberty", "locator": "I", "translation": "J. S. Mill (1859)", "quotationSource": "source/mill-on-liberty-1859", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-on-liberty-1859", "locator": "I" } ] }, { "id": "passage/outlines-1-12-tranquility", "type": "passage", "label": "The tranquilizing aim of skepticism", "summary": "Section 12 (this translation’s paragraph numbering) gives skepticism’s origin in the hope of attaining ἀταραξία and links its anti-dogmatic method to that practical end.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/outlines-of-pyrrhonism", "locator": "Outlines of Pyrrhonism (Book I), section 12", "translation": "Mary Mills Patrick (1899)", "quotationSource": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "locator": "Book I, section 12" } ] }, { "id": "passage/outlines-1-19-24-appearances", "type": "passage", "label": "Pyrrhonian treatment of appearances and everyday criteria", "summary": "Sections 19–24 pair a rebuttal of phenomenal denial with the rule for action: the Sceptics deny not the phenomena but dogmatic claims about them, and therefore base life on observed appearances, nature, feeling, custom, and arts without fixed assent.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/outlines-of-pyrrhonism", "locator": "Outlines of Pyrrhonism (Book I), sections 19–24 (this edition keeps paragraph-number locators that cut across modern chapter ranges)", "translation": "Mary Mills Patrick (1899)", "quotationSource": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "locator": "Book I, sections 19–24" } ] }, { "id": "passage/outlines-1-8-10-sceptical-ability", "type": "passage", "label": "Sceptical power in opposition, epoché, and tranquillity", "summary": "In Book I, sections 8–10, Sextus defines skepticism as opposing appearances and thought in all ways to produce equipoise, then suspension of judgment and imperturbability. In this edition, those section numbers are internal paragraph numbers rather than a modern chapter-only numbering.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/outlines-of-pyrrhonism", "locator": "Outlines of Pyrrhonism (Book I), sections 8–10", "translation": "Mary Mills Patrick (1899)", "quotationSource": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "locator": "Book I, sections 8–10" } ] }, { "id": "passage/phaedo-114c-d", "type": "passage", "label": "The bodiless hope is a glorious venture, not exact cartography", "summary": "The closing myth gives the philosophically purified a bodiless destiny, then withholds certainty about its exact geography and presents the account as a morally sustaining venture.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/phaedo", "locator": "Phaedo 114c–114d (Jowett 1892; Stephanus pagination)", "translation": "Benjamin Jowett (1892)", "quotationSource": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "locator": "Phaedo 114c–114d" } ] }, { "id": "passage/phaedo-64c", "type": "passage", "label": "Death is the separation of soul and body", "summary": "Plato's Socrates defines death as completed soul-body separation, establishing the dialogue's conceptual starting point rather than merely describing biological cessation.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/phaedo", "locator": "Phaedo 64c (Jowett 1892; Stephanus pagination)", "translation": "Benjamin Jowett (1892)", "quotationSource": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "locator": "Phaedo 64c" } ] }, { "id": "passage/phaedo-80b", "type": "passage", "label": "Soul resembles the divine; body resembles the mortal", "summary": "The affinity argument aligns soul and body with opposed clusters of properties, but likeness to the immortal does not yet prove the soul imperishable; Cebes later presses that gap.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/phaedo", "locator": "Phaedo 80b (Jowett 1892; Stephanus pagination)", "translation": "Benjamin Jowett (1892)", "quotationSource": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "locator": "Phaedo 80b" } ] }, { "id": "passage/principal-doctrine-3", "type": "passage", "label": "Epicurean restraint as criterion for pleasure", "summary": "Epicurean flourishing is bounded by the end of pain, linking good life to measured satisfaction rather than excess.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/principal-doctrines", "locator": "Principal Doctrine 3", "translation": "Cyril Bailey (1926)", "quotationSource": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "citations": [ { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "locator": "Principal Doctrine 3" } ] }, { "id": "passage/principal-doctrine-5", "type": "passage", "label": "Prudence, honor, and justice in flourishing", "summary": "Epicurean ethics ties pleasant living to moral discipline, arguing that sustainable well-being requires integrity in conduct.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/principal-doctrines", "locator": "Principal Doctrine 5", "translation": "Cyril Bailey (1926)", "quotationSource": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "citations": [ { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "locator": "Principal Doctrine 5" } ] }, { "id": "passage/quran-21-83-84", "type": "passage", "label": "Lo! adversity afflicteth me", "summary": "The whole of Job's speech in this sura is a single sentence of appeal — no accusation, no demand for explanation — followed immediately by God's answer and restoration (v. 84: his suffering removed and his household restored 'as a mercy from Our store and a remembrance for the worshippers').", "status": "draft", "text": "text/quran", "locator": "Qur'an 21:83–84 (al-Anbiyāʾ); quotation from v. 83", "translation": "Marmaduke Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (1930; public domain)", "quotationSource": "source/pickthall-quran", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "21:83–84" }, { "source": "source/johns-quranic-job", "note": "Analysis of the compression of the Job narrative in this sura." } ] }, { "id": "passage/quran-38-44", "type": "passage", "label": "Lo! We found him steadfast", "summary": "The divine verdict on Job in the Qur'an: ṣābir — steadfast, patient. Where the biblical epilogue vindicates Job's protest, the Qur'anic conclusion praises his endurance and constant turning back to God (awwāb).", "status": "draft", "text": "text/quran", "locator": "Qur'an 38:44 (Ṣād; within the Job pericope 38:41–44)", "translation": "Marmaduke Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (1930; public domain)", "quotationSource": "source/pickthall-quran", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "38:41–44" }, { "source": "source/johns-quranic-job", "note": "On ṣabr and the oath episode in the Ṣād pericope." } ] }, { "id": "passage/quran-51-24-27", "type": "passage", "label": "Abraham's honoured guests receive a fatted calf", "summary": "The Qur'an recalls Abraham's prompt and abundant provision for unknown guests; it presents an exemplary narrative, not the later juristic duration of a guest's entitlement.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/quran", "locator": "Qur'an 51:24–27", "translation": "Marmaduke Pickthall (1930)", "quotationSource": "source/pickthall-quran", "citations": [ { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "Qur'an 51:24–27" } ] }, { "id": "passage/republic-338c-thrasymachus-justice-stronger", "type": "passage", "label": "Thrasymachus on justice and the stronger", "summary": "Thrasymachus's challenge frames justice as serving the interests of power.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/plato-republic", "locator": "Republic 338c", "translation": "Benjamin Jowett, 1892 translation", "quotationSource": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "locator": "Republic 338c" } ] }, { "id": "passage/republic-433a-b-each-class-does-work", "type": "passage", "label": "Justice as each class doing its proper work", "summary": "Plato defines justice in civic terms: each class performs its own work without interference.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/plato-republic", "locator": "Republic 433a-b", "translation": "Benjamin Jowett, 1892 translation", "quotationSource": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "locator": "Republic 433a-b" } ] }, { "id": "passage/republic-473c-d-philosophers-kings-rest", "type": "passage", "label": "No rest until philosophers rule", "summary": "Plato closes his argument with a conditional claim tying stable justice to philosopher rule.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/plato-republic", "locator": "Republic 473c-d", "translation": "Benjamin Jowett, 1892 translation", "quotationSource": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "locator": "Republic 473c-d" } ] }, { "id": "passage/satapatha-1-8-1-manu-flood", "type": "passage", "label": "The fish promises reciprocal rescue", "summary": "The warning is framed neither as divine judgment nor secret dissent among gods: a vulnerable fish asks Manu for care and promises to return that protection when the flood comes.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/satapatha-brahmana", "locator": "Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 1.8.1.2", "translation": "Julius Eggeling, Sacred Books of the East 12 (1882), Mādhyandina recension; public-domain wording", "quotationSource": "source/eggeling-satapatha", "citations": [ { "source": "source/eggeling-satapatha", "locator": "1.8.1.2, p. 216" } ] }, { "id": "passage/sn-36-6-two-arrows", "type": "passage", "label": "The two arrows", "summary": "The Buddha's diagnostic move on suffering: bodily pain (the first arrow) strikes everyone, awakened or not; the anguish added by one's reaction (the second arrow) is optional and trainable. Suffering is disaggregated rather than explained or justified.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/samyutta-nikaya", "locator": "SN 36.6 (Salla Sutta, Vedanā-saṃyutta)", "translation": "Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997), Access to Insight; brief excerpt quoted under CC BY-NC 4.0 with attribution", "quotationSource": "source/thanissaro-sn36-6", "citations": [ { "source": "source/thanissaro-sn36-6", "locator": "SN 36.6" }, { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "note": "Context on vedanā (feeling) and the analysis of dukkha." } ] }, { "id": "passage/sn-44-10-survival", "type": "passage", "label": "Survival and annihilation share a mistaken self-premise", "summary": "The Buddha's silence is explained as refusing both eternalist and annihilationist camps while avoiding a negative answer that would confirm Vacchagotta's belief that a previously possessed self had vanished.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/samyutta-nikaya", "locator": "SN 44.10:1.3–2.9 (PTS SN IV 400–401; SuttaCentral segments)", "translation": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2018)", "quotationSource": "source/sujato-sn44-10", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sn44-10", "locator": "SN 44.10:1.3–2.9" } ] }, { "id": "passage/sn-56-11-craving", "type": "passage", "label": "Craving is the origin of suffering", "summary": "The second noble truth names not desire in the abstract but taṇhā: craving entangled with relish and greed, differentiated by sensuality, continued existence, and nonexistence.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/samyutta-nikaya", "locator": "SN 56.11:4.3–4.5 (Bilara segments)", "translation": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2018)", "quotationSource": "source/sujato-sn56-11", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sn56-11", "locator": "SN 56.11:4.3–4.5" } ] }, { "id": "passage/sutrakritanga-activity-and-hostility", "type": "passage", "label": "The activity lecture refuses to reduce harm to conscious avowal", "summary": "A difficult debate passage connects mind, speech, body, cruelty, and a formed murderous resolution while warning that moral responsibility cannot be erased by a narrow claim about conscious thought.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/sutrakritanga", "locator": "Book II, Lecture 4, §§1–4 (Jacobi SBE 45, pp. 399–401)", "translation": "Hermann Jacobi (1895), Sacred Books of the East 45", "quotationSource": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga II.4 §§1–4; pp. 399–401", "note": "Verified against the Sacred Texts transcription; ellipses remove repeated disputant formulas without joining words into a new sentence." } ] }, { "id": "passage/sutrakritanga-carefulness-all-beings", "type": "passage", "label": "Carefulness treats all beings as oneself", "summary": "The lecture makes careful movement, allowed food, impartial regard, and cessation from injury parts of one mendicant discipline.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/sutrakritanga", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 10, §§1–6 (Jacobi SBE 45, pp. 306–307)", "translation": "Hermann Jacobi (1895), Sacred Books of the East 45", "quotationSource": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga I.10 §§1–6; pp. 306–307", "note": "Verified against the Sacred Texts transcription and scan-linked edition." } ] }, { "id": "passage/sutrakritanga-killing-causing-consenting", "type": "passage", "label": "Killing, causing, and consenting increase bondage", "summary": "The opening doctrine passage ties possession and violence to bondage while treating direct killing, causing others to kill, and consent as morally consequential.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/sutrakritanga", "locator": "Book I, Lecture 1, Chapter 1, §§2–5 (Jacobi SBE 45, pp. 235–236)", "translation": "Hermann Jacobi (1895), Sacred Books of the East 45", "quotationSource": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga I.1.1 §§2–5; pp. 235–236", "note": "Verified against the Sacred Texts transcription and scan-linked edition." } ] }, { "id": "passage/sutta-nipata-snp1-8-universal-welfare", "type": "passage", "label": "Snp 1.8 extends loving-kindness without exception", "summary": "Snp 1.8 combines welfare-for-all wishes with a ban on wishing pain when provoked, then uses the mother-and-only-child analogy to cultivate an all-directional boundless heart.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/sutta-nipata", "locator": "Snp 1.8:3.1–8.4 (SuttaCentral Bilara segments)", "translation": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2020), SuttaCentral", "quotationSource": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "locator": "snp1.8:3.1–8.4", "note": "Verified against SuttaCentral's published Bilara JSON; inline markup was removed without changing wording." } ] }, { "id": "passage/sutta-nipata-snp4-15-armed-peril-dart", "type": "passage", "label": "Snp 4.15 traces armed peril to a dart in the heart", "summary": "Snp 4.15 links taking up arms with peril and fear, then uses a dart-in-the-heart image to move from social conflict to the agitation that sustains it.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/sutta-nipata", "locator": "Snp 4.15:1.1–5.4 (SuttaCentral Bilara segments)", "translation": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2020), SuttaCentral", "quotationSource": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "locator": "snp4.15:1.1–5.4", "note": "Verified against SuttaCentral's published Bilara JSON; inline markup was removed without changing wording." } ] }, { "id": "passage/utilitarianism-higher-pleasures-2", "type": "passage", "label": "Higher and lower pleasures", "summary": "Mill argues that some pleasures are qualitatively superior by judgment of competent judges.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/utilitarianism", "locator": "Chapter II", "translation": "John Stuart Mill (1863)", "quotationSource": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "locator": "Chapter II" } ] }, { "id": "passage/utilitarianism-impartial-happiness-2", "type": "passage", "label": "Impartial happiness as the utilitarian standard", "summary": "Mill defines the utilitarian end as the greatest happiness of all.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/utilitarianism", "locator": "Chapter II", "translation": "John Stuart Mill (1863)", "quotationSource": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "locator": "Chapter II" } ] }, { "id": "passage/utilitarianism-motive-rightness-2", "type": "passage", "label": "Moral rightness and motive", "summary": "Mill distinguishes the standard of morality from motives, holding that right action is judged by rules and outcomes rather than by intention alone.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/utilitarianism", "locator": "II", "translation": "J. S. Mill (1863)", "quotationSource": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "locator": "II" } ] }, { "id": "passage/utilitarianism-rights-justice-5", "type": "passage", "label": "Justice, rights, and reciprocity", "summary": "Mill defines justice as moral rightness that creates enforceable claims between persons.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/utilitarianism", "locator": "V", "translation": "J. S. Mill (1863)", "quotationSource": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "locator": "V" } ] }, { "id": "passage/uttaradhyayana-careless-killing-accountability", "type": "passage", "label": "Careless killing cannot be displaced onto one's relations", "summary": "The lecture couples mortality with the claim that careless killers receive no protection from wealth or relations when the fruit of action is reaped.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/uttaradhyayana-sutra", "locator": "Lecture 4, §§1–4 (Jacobi SBE 45, pp. 18–19)", "translation": "Hermann Jacobi (1895), Sacred Books of the East 45", "quotationSource": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Uttarādhyayana, Lecture 4, §§1–4; pp. 18–19", "note": "Verified against the Sacred Texts transcription and scan-linked edition." } ] }, { "id": "passage/uttaradhyayana-samitis-guptis", "type": "passage", "label": "Samitis and guptis operationalize non-harm", "summary": "The lecture converts vigilance into rules for walking, speech, alms, handling objects, disposal, thought, and bodily action, explicitly oriented toward avoiding misery and destruction for living beings.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/uttaradhyayana-sutra", "locator": "Lecture 24, §§1–8, 20–26 (Jacobi SBE 45, pp. 129–136)", "translation": "Hermann Jacobi (1895), Sacred Books of the East 45", "quotationSource": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "locator": "Uttarādhyayana, Lecture 24, §§1–8, 20–26; pp. 129–136", "note": "Verified against the Sacred Texts transcription; brackets omit intervening enumerations while preserving Jacobi's wording." } ] }, { "id": "passage/zhuangzi-17-river-god", "type": "passage", "label": "Bounded knowing in sea, season, and doctrine", "summary": "Zhuangzi uses frog, insect, and scholar images to show how each is bounded by place, season, and inherited doctrine, limiting what it can grasp.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/zhuangzi", "locator": "Book XVII, Part II, section X, paragraph 1 (Legge)", "translation": "James Legge (1891)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Book XVII, Part II, section X, paragraph 1 (Legge)", "note": "Source text: https://sacred-texts.com/tao/sbe39/sbe39138.htm" } ] }, { "id": "passage/zhuangzi-2-perspectival-knowing", "type": "passage", "label": "Different natures suit different homes", "summary": "Zhuangzi argues that what is fitting for one being may not fit another, and that rightness is constrained by the specific context of life form and circumstance.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/zhuangzi", "locator": "Book II, Part I, section II, paragraph 8 (Legge)", "translation": "James Legge (1891)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Book II, Part I, section II, paragraph 8 (Legge)", "note": "Source text: https://sacred-texts.com/tao/sbe39/sbe39123.htm" } ] }, { "id": "passage/zhuangzi-2-this-and-that", "type": "passage", "label": "Two-sided attention", "summary": "Zhuangzi highlights that an object is grasped through alternating perspectives, and understanding is partial until one recognises their own standpoint.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/zhuangzi", "locator": "Book II, Part I, section II, paragraph 3 (Legge)", "translation": "James Legge (1891)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Book II, Part I, section II, paragraph 3 (Legge)", "note": "Source text: https://sacred-texts.com/tao/sbe39/sbe39123.htm" } ] }, { "id": "passage/zhuangzi-6-transformation", "type": "passage", "label": "Heaven and earth as a melting-pot", "summary": "The passage frames human life within a single transformative process of heaven and earth, where birth and death are transitions rather than oppositional endpoints.", "status": "draft", "text": "text/zhuangzi", "locator": "Book VI, Part I, section VI, paragraph 6 (Legge)", "translation": "James Legge (1891)", "quotationSource": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Book VI, Part I, section VI, paragraph 6 (Legge)", "note": "Source text: https://sacred-texts.com/tao/sbe39/sbe39127.htm" } ] }, { "id": "question/death-liberation", "type": "question", "label": "What happens at death—and what is liberation?", "summary": "A recurring question about whether death ends a person, releases something enduring, leads to renewed embodiment, or can itself be overcome. The comparison refuses to treat immortality, resurrection, mokṣa, nirvāṇa, and parinibbāna as interchangeable promises.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "What happens after we die?", "Is there life after death?", "Can death be overcome?", "What does liberation free us from?", "Do we survive as a soul or rise bodily?" ], "whyItRecurs": "Death makes personal continuity, justice, attachment, embodiment, and the value of present action unavoidable. Traditions answer at different levels: some describe survival or resurrection after death, while others diagnose repeated birth and death as the condition from which liberation is sought." }, { "id": "question/desire-self-mastery", "type": "question", "label": "What should we do with desire?", "summary": "A recurring question about whether wanting should be extinguished, disciplined, redirected, or healed. The launch comparison begins by refusing the common mistake that every tradition uses one concept equivalent to English 'desire.'", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "Is desire the cause of suffering?", "Should we suppress our desires?", "What does self-mastery require?", "Can we choose what we want?" ], "whyItRecurs": "Desire moves action toward imagined goods, yet frustrated, compulsive, or misdirected wanting can divide a person and harm others. Traditions therefore ask both which desires distort judgment and what kind of agency can transform them." }, { "id": "question/flood-recurrence", "type": "question", "label": "Why does the flood story recur across cultures?", "summary": "A deceptively simple question whose answer must distinguish demonstrable literary reuse, movement through connected cultural worlds, and merely recurring catastrophe motifs. Similar boats do not by themselves prove a single global memory or a single line of borrowing.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "Why are flood myths everywhere?", "Did Noah's flood come from Gilgamesh?", "Why do so many cultures have a great flood story?", "Are all flood myths versions of the same event?" ], "whyItRecurs": "Floods turn inhabited order into undifferentiated water, make survival depend on warning and preservation, and provide narrative machinery for beginning the social world again. Those pressures can produce recurrent motifs; in the ancient Near East, however, textual history also demonstrates transmission and reuse." }, { "id": "question/hospitality-stranger", "type": "question", "label": "What do we owe the stranger at the door?", "summary": "A recurring question about how a household or community treats someone outside its ordinary bonds. The sources distinguish travelers, guests, resident outsiders, and divine visitors rather than collapsing them into one timeless category.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "Why is hospitality sacred?", "How should strangers be treated?", "Could a guest be a divine visitor?" ], "whyItRecurs": "Travel makes people dependent on households they do not know, while communities must decide whether unfamiliar people receive protection, food, recognition, or exclusion. Hospitality therefore tests how far moral obligation extends beyond kin and established membership." }, { "id": "question/human-flourishing", "type": "question", "label": "What makes a human life go well?", "summary": "A comparative question across traditions about the conditions, disciplines, and ends of a life worth living.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "What makes life go well?", "How should one live well?", "What is the best life?", "How does one flourish?" ], "whyItRecurs": "Across traditions, humans revisit this question when facing conflict between desire, obligation, loss, mortality, and social repair." }, { "id": "question/innocent-suffering", "type": "question", "label": "Why do the innocent suffer?", "summary": "If the world is ordered — by gods, karma, or justice — why do people who have done nothing wrong endure catastrophe? Every long-lived tradition confronts the gap between moral expectation and lived experience.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "Why do bad things happen to good people?", "The problem of undeserved suffering", "Theodicy (in theistic framings)" ], "whyItRecurs": "Suffering that tracks no visible fault is a universal human observation — illness, disaster, and injustice strike without regard to virtue. Any tradition claiming the world is meaningful must either explain the mismatch or teach a way to stand within it. (Framing is an inference; see METHODOLOGY.md.)", "tags": [ "launch-theme" ] }, { "id": "question/mutual-obligation", "type": "question", "label": "What do we owe one another?", "summary": "A recurrent moral question about how and why obligations arise between persons, communities, and institutions, and what binds those obligations across differences in status, role, belief, and culture.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "What are our obligations to others?", "What obligations do people owe each other?", "To whom do we owe moral duties?" ], "whyItRecurs": "Most traditions face the same practical pressure: coordinating action in shared spaces where competing claims, needs, and freedoms meet. The resulting ethical frameworks diverge on whether obligation is grounded by duty, consequence, right, relationship, or character." }, { "id": "question/political-legitimacy", "type": "question", "label": "What makes political authority legitimate?", "summary": "A recurrent question about why anyone may rule, which purposes justify political power, what obligations bind rulers and people, and when authority can be corrected or lost.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "Why should anyone have the right to rule?", "When is government legitimate?", "What makes a ruler just?", "When does authority lose its claim to obedience?" ], "whyItRecurs": "Political communities repeatedly face succession, coercion, corruption, faction, and disagreement about the common good. Texts answer by locating legitimacy in different combinations of virtue, knowledge, divine or cosmic authorization, public welfare, inherited office, law, and conditional obedience." }, { "id": "question/uncertainty-control", "type": "question", "label": "How should we live with uncertainty and limited control?", "summary": "People inherit fragile control over outcomes: bodies fail, institutions shift, and events exceed intention. This question compares how traditions answer uncertainty without collapsing into either fatalism or fantasy mastery.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "How do we live with uncertainty?", "What is a good life under uncertainty?", "How can we act when we can't control outcomes?", "How to live with what we cannot control" ], "whyItRecurs": "All durable traditions must address the mismatch between human planning and the fact that causation, others' actions, and ecological force can outrun intention. Comparison is useful only where vocabularies differ (control, fate, providence, practice) as much as where lived problems overlap." }, { "id": "question/violence-nonviolence", "type": "question", "label": "When is violence justified, and what does nonviolence require?", "summary": "Communities must decide whether force can protect life or justice, while practices of nonviolence ask what restraint costs and whom it obligates. This question compares particular textual disciplines without treating pacifism, ascetic non-harm, and enemy-love as interchangeable.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "Is violence ever justified?", "What does nonviolence demand?", "When may force be used?", "How should we respond to violence?" ], "whyItRecurs": "Humans face recurring conflicts between protecting the vulnerable, resisting domination, avoiding retaliation, and refusing harm. Traditions answer at different levels—renunciant discipline, personal conduct, communal ethics, and political authority—so a useful comparison must preserve whose action is governed and under what conditions." }, { "id": "ritual/sitting-shiva", "type": "ritual", "label": "Sitting shiva", "summary": "The Jewish practice of seven days of structured home mourning after burial of a close relative, in which the community comes to the mourner. A ritual answer to suffering that organizes presence and time rather than explanation.", "status": "draft", "occasion": "The seven days following burial of an immediate family member", "citations": [ { "source": "source/lamm-jewish-mourning", "note": "Standard practical reference on shiva observance." }, { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Job 2:13", "note": "The friends sit with Job on the ground 'seven days and seven nights' in silence — traditionally linked to shiva practice." } ] }, { "id": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895", "type": "source", "label": "Abbott, Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals", "summary": "Thomas Kingsmill Abbott’s 1895 English translation of Kant’s Groundwork text, preserving Kant’s ak-formula structure and central duty-based argument.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Immanuel Kant", "title": "Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals", "year": 1895, "publisher": "Longmans, Green, and Co. / Project Gutenberg", "identifier": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5682", "translator": "Thomas Kingsmill Abbott", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Immanuel Kant, translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott (1895)" } }, { "id": "source/adler-origins-judaism", "type": "source", "label": "Adler — The Origins of Judaism", "summary": "An archaeological-historical study of the earliest evidence for widespread Torah observance among ordinary Judeans, arguing for a substantially later emergence than many conventional origin summaries imply.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Yonatan Adler", "title": "The Origins of Judaism: An Archaeological-Historical Reappraisal", "year": 2022, "publisher": "Yale University Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780300268379" }, { "id": "source/aguirre-deucalion", "type": "source", "label": "Aguirre, Deukalion and Pyrrha", "summary": "A modern study emphasizing both likely Near Eastern influence and specifically Greek transformations: regional scope, variant survivors, stone-born humanity, and genealogical identity.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Mercedes Aguirre", "title": "Deukalion and Pyrrha: Re-reading the Greek Flood Myth", "year": 2013, "publisher": "Electryone 1.2", "identifier": "https://www.electryone.gr/wp-content/uploads/1.-M.-Aguirre-2013-Electryone-1.2-pp.-1-12.pdf" }, { "id": "source/ahn-venter-genesis-18", "type": "source", "label": "Ahn and Venter, Fellowship Narrative of Genesis 18", "summary": "An open-access literary study of Genesis 18:1–15 that cautions against treating Isaac as a reward mechanically earned by hospitality and records disagreement over Abraham's recognition of the visitors.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Sang Keun Ahn and Pieter M. Venter", "title": "An Analytical Perspective on the Fellowship Narrative of Genesis 18:1–15", "year": 2010, "publisher": "HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 66(1)", "identifier": "https://scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S0259-94222010000100027&script=sci_arttext" }, { "id": "source/annas-introduction-platos-republic-1981", "type": "source", "label": "Annas, Introduction to Plato's Republic", "summary": "Secondary introduction framing the Republic's central arguments, textual organization, and interpretive controversies.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Julia Annas", "title": "An Introduction to Plato's Republic", "year": 1981, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780198274292", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/annas-morality-happiness", "type": "source", "label": "Annas, The Morality of Happiness", "summary": "Its interpretive control is to recast flourishing as moral achievement through cultivated virtue and practical reason, not as satisfaction of transient desires.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Julia Annas", "title": "The Morality of Happiness", "year": 1993, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780195096521", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/annus-lenzi-ludlul", "type": "source", "label": "Annus & Lenzi, Ludlul bēl nēmeqi (2010)", "summary": "The current standard critical edition of the poem, based on all known tablets, incorporating newly recovered lines and establishing the ordering of Tablet IV. State Archives of Assyria Cuneiform Texts 7.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "critical-edition", "author": "Amar Annus and Alan Lenzi", "title": "Ludlul bēl nēmeqi: The Standard Babylonian Poem of the Righteous Sufferer (SAACT 7)", "year": 2010, "publisher": "Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, Helsinki", "identifier": "ISBN 978-952-10-1334-8" }, { "id": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "type": "source", "label": "Bailey, Epicurus: The Extant Remains (1926)", "summary": "Cyril Bailey's edition of Epicurus' surviving letters and principal doctrines, useful for textual context and doctrinal framing.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "critical-edition", "author": "Epicurus", "title": "Epicurus: The Extant Remains", "year": 1926, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://archive.org/details/EpicurusTheExtantRemainsBaileyOxford1926", "translator": "Cyril Bailey", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Cyril Bailey (1926)" } }, { "id": "source/bartholomeusz-in-defense-of-dharma", "type": "source", "label": "Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma", "summary": "A monograph on Sri Lankan Buddhist just-war reasoning, showing that Buddhist political history includes competing arguments about when defensive violence is justified and why this cannot be reduced to one uniform ethic.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Tessa J. Bartholomeusz", "title": "In Defense of Dharma: Just-War Ideology in Buddhist Sri Lanka", "year": 2002, "publisher": "RoutledgeCurzon", "identifier": "https://www.routledge.com/In-Defense-of-Dharma-Just-War-Ideology-in-Buddhist-Sri-Lanka/Bartholomeusz/p/book/9780700716821", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "jurisdiction": "United States", "licenseId": "Copyright", "licenseUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/", "evidenceUrl": "https://obnb.uk/p11979872-in-defense-of-dharma-just-war-ideology-in-buddhist-sri-lanka", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Tessa J. Bartholomeusz (2002)" } }, { "id": "source/bett-pyrrho-legacy", "type": "source", "label": "Bett, Pyrrho, his Antecedents, and his Legacy", "summary": "Scholarly monograph arguing for a distinct early Pyrrhonian phase and reconstructing Pyrrho’s antecedents in late classical thought.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Richard Bett", "title": "Pyrrho, His Antecedents, and His Legacy", "year": 2000, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199256617.001.0001", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/blankinship-hospitality-islam", "type": "source", "label": "Blankinship, Hospitality and Islam", "summary": "An academic encyclopedia entry connecting Qur'anic traveler aid, Abraham and Lot narratives, and the hadith three-day norm while keeping those sources and social roles distinct.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Khalid Yahya Blankinship", "title": "Hospitality and Islam, in Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, ed. Richard C. Martin", "year": 2004, "publisher": "Macmillan Reference USA / Thomson Gale", "identifier": "https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hospitality-and-islam" }, { "id": "source/bodhi-numerical-discourses", "type": "source", "label": "Bodhi, The Numerical Discourses", "summary": "Wisdom Publications translation and arrangement of the Anguttara Nikāya discourses used for Buddhist textual comparison in the project.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Bhikkhu Bodhi", "title": "The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Anguttara Nikāya", "year": 2012, "publisher": "Wisdom Publications", "identifier": "9781614290407", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/bronkhorst-greater-magadha", "type": "source", "label": "Bronkhorst, Greater Magadha", "summary": "A major reconstruction of early north Indian religious culture, rebirth, karmic retribution, and renunciant movements. It supports a shared-debate environment while disputing simple derivation of Buddhism and Jainism from Vedic religion.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Johannes Bronkhorst", "title": "Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India", "year": 2007, "publisher": "Brill", "identifier": "ISBN 9789004157194" }, { "id": "source/brown-john", "type": "source", "label": "Brown, The Gospel According to John I–XII (1966)", "summary": "Raymond E. Brown's Anchor Bible commentary — a standard critical commentary on the fourth gospel, including the man-born-blind narrative of chapter 9.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Raymond E. Brown", "title": "The Gospel According to John (I–XII), Anchor Bible 29", "year": 1966, "publisher": "Doubleday, Garden City NY" }, { "id": "source/bukhari-guest-right", "type": "source", "label": "Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, guest-right reports", "summary": "Canonical Sunni hadith collection cited by stable report numbers for the guest's right, its duration, and a travel delegation's denied hospitality. The accessed English presentation did not reliably identify its translator, so it supports claim locators but no Atlas passage quotation.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Muḥammad ibn Ismāʿīl al-Bukhārī", "title": "Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī", "identifier": "https://sunnah.com/bukhari:6135" }, { "id": "source/carr-genesis-flood", "type": "source", "label": "Carr, Precursors to the Flood Narrative", "summary": "A current source-critical study arguing that both major compositional strands in Genesis 6:5–9:17 were modeled on earlier Mesopotamian flood traditions, while resisting a falsely simple one-tablet copying claim.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "David M. Carr", "title": "Precursors to the Flood Narrative (Gen 6:5–9:17), chapter 6 of The Formation of Genesis 1–11: Biblical and Other Precursors", "year": 2020, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190062545.003.0007" }, { "id": "source/chapple-nonviolence-animals-earth-self", "type": "source", "label": "Chapple, Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self", "summary": "A comparative study of South Asian nonviolence that attends to animals, elemental and plant life, ascetic practice, and the self rather than limiting non-harm to human conflict.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Christopher Key Chapple", "title": "Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions", "year": 1993, "publisher": "State University of New York Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780791414972", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "jurisdiction": "United States", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Christopher Key Chapple (1993)" } }, { "id": "source/cline-confucius-rawls-justice", "type": "source", "label": "Cline, Confucius, Rawls, and the Sense of Justice", "summary": "A comparative study of sense of justice in Confucius and Rawls, including their differences in the moral psychology of obligation and institutional fairness.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Erin M. Cline", "title": "Confucius, Rawls, and the Sense of Justice", "year": 2012, "publisher": "Fordham University Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780823245086", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/collins-invention-judaism", "type": "source", "label": "Collins — The Invention of Judaism", "summary": "A historical study of Torah and Jewish identity from Deuteronomy through the Second Temple period and Paul, emphasizing diversity and development rather than a single uncontested origin date.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "John J. Collins", "title": "The Invention of Judaism: Torah and Jewish Identity from Deuteronomy to Paul", "year": 2017, "publisher": "University of California Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780520294110" }, { "id": "source/collins-nirvana", "type": "source", "label": "Collins, Nirvana: Concept, Imagery, Narrative", "summary": "A major study separating doctrinal concept, imagery, and narrative uses of nirvāṇa, used to prevent fire, coolness, and cessation images from being collapsed into one literal postmortem ontology.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Steven Collins", "title": "Nirvana: Concept, Imagery, Narrative", "year": 2010, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "DOI 10.1017/CBO9780511812118" }, { "id": "source/cook-enspirited-body", "type": "source", "label": "Cook, The Enspirited Body in 1 Corinthians 15", "summary": "A recent specialist monograph on sōma pneumatikon. Cook argues that the phrase's precise nature remains unresolved but that its Pauline context does not warrant treating the raised body as entirely nonphysical.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "John Granger Cook", "title": "The Enspirited Body in 1 Corinthians 15", "year": 2025, "publisher": "Mohr Siebeck", "identifier": "DOI 10.1628/978-3-16-164175-6" }, { "id": "source/cort-jains-in-the-world", "type": "source", "label": "Cort, Jains in the World", "summary": "An ethnographic and textual study of the interaction between Jain liberation ideology and the well-being values of lived lay communities, guarding against treating mendicant rules as exhaustive social description.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "John E. Cort", "title": "Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India", "year": 2001, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/0195132343.001.0001", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "jurisdiction": "United States", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "John E. Cort, Jains in the World (2001)" } }, { "id": "source/crisp-routledge-utilitarianism", "type": "source", "label": "Crisp, Mill on Utilitarianism", "summary": "A guidebook on Mill's utilitarian philosophy that clarifies central arguments on utility, justice, and practical reasoning in a structured pedagogical format.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Roger Crisp", "title": "Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Mill on Utilitarianism", "year": 1997, "publisher": "Routledge", "identifier": "ISBN 9780203410615", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/dalley-myths-mesopotamia", "type": "source", "label": "Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia", "summary": "A modern scholarly translation of Atrahasis and other Akkadian myths. Brief excerpts are used at draft; Lambert and Millard remain the critical-edition anchor.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Stephanie Dalley", "title": "Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others", "year": 1989, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://omnika.org/texts/66", "translator": "Stephanie Dalley", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/davies-allison-matthew-icc-volume-1-1988", "type": "source", "label": "Davies and Allison, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Matthew, vol. 1", "summary": "A foundational ICC treatment of Matthew 1–7, including close analysis of the Sermon on the Mount, its Jewish scriptural setting, syntax, and redactional history.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "W. D. Davies and Dale C. Allison Jr.", "title": "A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew, Volume 1", "year": 1988, "publisher": "T&T Clark", "identifier": "ISBN 9780567094810", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "jurisdiction": "United Kingdom", "creditLine": "The work is used for metadata and interpretation tracking only." } }, { "id": "source/day-genesis-flood", "type": "source", "label": "Day, Genesis and ancient Near Eastern flood accounts", "summary": "A methodologically explicit comparison that weighs direct and indirect dependence rather than merely counting shared motifs; it argues that the non-Priestly account is especially close to Atrahasis while later traditions also shaped the Priestly account.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "John Day", "title": "Comparative Ancient Near Eastern Study: The Genesis Flood Narrative in Relation to Ancient Near Eastern Flood Accounts, in Biblical Interpretation and Method: Essays in Honour of John Barton, ed. Katharine J. Dell and Paul M. Joyce, pp. 74–88", "year": 2013, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199645534.003.0007" }, { "id": "source/donner-fumerton-mill", "type": "source", "label": "Donner and Fumerton, Mill", "summary": "A scholarly study of John Stuart Mill that connects his utilitarian moral framework with his broader philosophical commitments across major works.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Wendy Donner and Richard Fumerton", "title": "Mill", "year": 2009, "publisher": "Wiley-Blackwell", "identifier": "ISBN 9781405150873", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/driver-history-utilitarianism", "type": "source", "label": "Driver, The History of Utilitarianism", "summary": "A historical map of utilitarianism, connecting Benthamite foundations, Mill's elaboration, and later developments across British and modern consequentialist traditions.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Julia Driver", "title": "The History of Utilitarianism", "year": 2009, "publisher": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/dundas-jains", "type": "source", "label": "Dundas, The Jains", "summary": "A standard historical and doctrinal survey that distinguishes mendicant ideals, lay practice, sectarian transmission, and the layered Śvetāmbara canon.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Paul Dundas", "title": "The Jains", "year": 2002, "publisher": "Routledge", "identifier": "ISBN 9780415266055", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "jurisdiction": "United Kingdom", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Paul Dundas, The Jains, 2nd ed. (2002)" } }, { "id": "source/durand-shogry-baltzly-stoicism", "type": "source", "label": "Durand, Shogry, and Baltzly — Stoicism (SEP)", "summary": "The Spring 2023 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry surveys the history, sources, and doctrines of Stoicism, including the school's foundation around 300 BCE.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Marion Durand, Simon Shogry, and Dirk Baltzly", "title": "Stoicism", "year": 2023, "publisher": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/stoicism/" }, { "id": "source/ebrey-phaedo", "type": "source", "label": "Ebrey, Plato's Phaedo", "summary": "A recent book-length reconstruction of the dialogue's philosophical life, kinship argument, final immortality argument, and afterlife myth, used to keep objections and argumentative stages visible.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "David Ebrey", "title": "Plato's Phaedo: Forms, Death, and the Philosophical Life", "year": 2023, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "DOI 10.1017/9781108787475" }, { "id": "source/eggeling-satapatha", "type": "source", "label": "Eggeling's Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa", "summary": "The complete public-domain Sacred Books of the East translation of the Mādhyandina recension. Its Victorian language is dated, but the section and paragraph locators are verifiable and it clearly separates the early Manu-fish account from later Matsya elaborations.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "The Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa According to the Text of the Mādhyandina School, Part I, Sacred Books of the East 12", "year": 1882, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://archive.org/details/satapathabrhma01eggeuoft", "translator": "Julius Eggeling", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Julius Eggeling (1882)" } }, { "id": "source/ekenberg-confessions-wills", "type": "source", "label": "Ekenberg, Practical Rationality and the Wills of Confessions 8", "summary": "A focused philosophical analysis arguing that Augustine's garden scene is best read through failures of practical rationality rather than as a settled theory of a distinct autonomous faculty called the will.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Tomas Ekenberg", "title": "Practical Rationality and the Wills of Confessions 8, in Augustine's Confessions: Philosophy in Autobiography, ed. William E. Mann, pp. 28–45", "year": 2014, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199577552.003.0003" }, { "id": "source/framarin-desire-gita", "type": "source", "label": "Framarin, The Desire You Are Required to Get Rid Of", "summary": "A functionalist analysis defending the contested view that the Gītā requires relinquishing all desire while distinguishing goal-directed action from desiring its goal.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Christopher G. Framarin", "title": "The Desire You Are Required to Get Rid of: A Functionalist Analysis of Desire in the Bhagavadgītā", "year": 2006, "publisher": "Philosophy East and West 56(4), pp. 604–617", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1353/pew.2006.0051" }, { "id": "source/frazer-apollodorus", "type": "source", "label": "Frazer's Apollodorus", "summary": "A public-domain Loeb translation of Pseudo-Apollodorus with stable section numbering. It preserves a concise Deucalion account but is a late mythographic witness, not proof of the story's earliest Greek form.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Pseudo-Apollodorus", "title": "The Library, Volume I", "year": 1921, "publisher": "Harvard University Press and William Heinemann", "identifier": "http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.7.2", "translator": "James George Frazer", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "James George Frazer (1921)" } }, { "id": "source/gardner-four-books-2007", "type": "source", "label": "Gardner, The Four Books", "summary": "Modern secondary framing of how the Four Books are canonized and taught in later Confucian curricula.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Douglas R. Gardner", "title": "The Four Books: The Basic Teachings of the Later Confucian Tradition", "year": 2007, "publisher": "Hackett Publishing Company", "identifier": "ISBN 9780872208261", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/george-babylonian-gilgamesh", "type": "source", "label": "George, The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic", "summary": "The standard two-volume critical edition and translation, essential for distinguishing the Standard Babylonian Tablet XI from earlier Gilgamesh compositions and from Atrahasis-type intermediaries.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "critical-edition", "author": "Andrew R. George", "title": "The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts", "year": 2003, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780198149224", "translator": "Andrew R. George" }, { "id": "source/gethin-foundations", "type": "source", "label": "Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism (1998)", "summary": "A widely used academic introduction to Buddhist thought and history, covering the canon, the Four Noble Truths, karma, and the marks of existence.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Rupert Gethin", "title": "The Foundations of Buddhism", "year": 1998, "publisher": "Oxford University Press" }, { "id": "source/gethin-review-selfless-mind", "type": "source", "label": "Gethin, review of The Selfless Mind", "summary": "Rupert Gethin's critical review of Harvey's metaphysical reconstruction, used to record objections to deriving a continuing stopped consciousness from isolated canonical passages.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Rupert Gethin", "title": "Review of The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness and Nirvana in Early Buddhism", "year": 1997, "publisher": "Journal of Buddhist Ethics 4, pp. 73–78", "identifier": "https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2010/04/gethin1.pdf" }, { "id": "source/graver-sep-epictetus", "type": "source", "label": "Graver, Epictetus (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)", "summary": "A current scholarly reference on Epictetus's agency, use of impressions, pedagogy, rational affect, social concern, providence, and the risks of detaching the compressed Handbook from the Discourses.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Margaret Graver", "title": "Epictetus", "year": 2025, "publisher": "The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fall 2025 Edition", "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2025/entries/epictetus/" }, { "id": "source/graver-stoicism-emotion", "type": "source", "label": "Graver, Stoicism and Emotion", "summary": "A standard reconstruction of Stoic passion as cognitive and evaluative, including involuntary feelings and rational good feelings that make 'emotionless Stoic' a historical caricature.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Margaret Graver", "title": "Stoicism and Emotion", "year": 2007, "publisher": "University of Chicago Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780226305578" }, { "id": "source/hadot-inner-citadel", "type": "source", "label": "Hadot, Inner Citadel", "summary": "Harvard University Press translation of Hadot’s reading of Marcus Aurelius, treated as an interpretive guide to Stoic practice.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Pierre Hadot", "title": "The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius", "year": 1998, "publisher": "Harvard University Press", "identifier": "0674461711", "translator": "Michael Chase", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/hansen-daoism", "type": "source", "label": "Hansen, Daoism", "summary": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Daoism, including doctrinal structure, textual history, and links to Zhuangzi-related scholarship.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Chad Hansen", "title": "Daoism", "year": 2023, "publisher": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/daoism/", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/harvey-introduction-buddhism", "type": "source", "label": "Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism", "summary": "A standard current introduction used to distinguish taṇhā from all desire and to note that chanda can be wholesome or unwholesome rather than functioning as a simple positive antonym.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Peter Harvey", "title": "An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, 2nd ed.", "year": 2013, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139050531" }, { "id": "source/harvey-selfless-mind", "type": "source", "label": "Harvey, The Selfless Mind", "summary": "A systematic study of personality, consciousness, and nirvāṇa in early Buddhism. Its positive account of objectless or transformed discernment is cited as one scholarly construction, not settled canonical fact.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Peter Harvey", "title": "The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness and Nirvana in Early Buddhism", "year": 1995, "publisher": "Curzon Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780700703388" }, { "id": "source/heffron-atrahasis-noise", "type": "source", "label": "Heffron on rigmu in Atra-ḫasīs", "summary": "A focused philological challenge to treating rigmu as simple population noise, bringing baby incantations into the debate. It makes the disagreement part of the data rather than a footnote.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Yağmur Heffron", "title": "Revisiting ‘Noise’ (rigmu) in Atra-ḫasīs in Light of Baby Incantations", "year": 2014, "publisher": "Journal of Near Eastern Studies 73.1", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1086/674916" }, { "id": "source/herman-ritualised-friendship", "type": "source", "label": "Herman, Ritualised Friendship and the Greek City", "summary": "A social-historical reinterpretation of xenia through durable elite relationships, gifts, obligation, loyalty, and power—an important corrective to translating the institution as generic niceness.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Gabriel Herman", "title": "Ritualised Friendship and the Greek City", "year": 1987, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780521325417" }, { "id": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "type": "source", "label": "Hicks, Epicurus (1925)", "summary": "R. D. Hicks translation of Epicurus material in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, with critical framing around the principal doctrines.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Epicurus", "title": "Lives of Eminent Philosophers, vol. II", "year": 1925, "publisher": "Harvard University Press / William Heinemann", "identifier": "https://classics.mit.edu/Epicurus/menoec.html", "translator": "R. D. Hicks", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "R. D. Hicks (1925)" } }, { "id": "source/inwood-ethics-human-action-stoicism", "type": "source", "label": "Inwood, Ethics and Human Action in Early Stoicism", "summary": "Its interpretive control is to ground Stoic flourishing in disciplined practical reason, where virtue and right action secure inward freedom despite unstable externals.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Brad Inwood", "title": "Ethics and Human Action in Early Stoicism", "year": 1985, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780198244592", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1", "type": "source", "label": "Jacobi, Jaina Sūtras, Part I (SBE 22)", "summary": "Hermann Jacobi's 1884 translation of the Ācārāṅga Sūtra supplies public-domain wording with edition-specific book, lecture, lesson, section, and page locators; its Victorian terminology requires modern controls.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Kalpa Sūtra", "title": "Jaina Sūtras, Part I", "year": 1884, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe22/index.htm", "translator": "Hermann Jacobi", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_sacred_books_of_the_East_(IA_1922707.0022.001.umich.edu).pdf", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Hermann Jacobi, trans., Jaina Sūtras, Part I, Sacred Books of the East 22 (1884)" } }, { "id": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2", "type": "source", "label": "Jacobi, Jaina Sūtras, Part II (SBE 45)", "summary": "Hermann Jacobi's 1895 translation of the Uttarādhyayana and Sūtrakṛtāṅga supplies public-domain wording with edition-specific lecture, chapter, verse, and page locators; modern scholarship controls its chronology and terminology.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Uttarādhyayana Sūtra and Sūtrakṛtāṅga", "title": "Jaina Sūtras, Part II", "year": 1895, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe45/index.htm", "translator": "Hermann Jacobi", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Sacred_Books_Of_The_East,_Vol-Xlv_(IA_sacredbooksofthe025070mbp).pdf", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Hermann Jacobi, trans., Jaina Sūtras, Part II, Sacred Books of the East 45 (1895)" } }, { "id": "source/jacobson-neighbor", "type": "source", "label": "Jacobson and Jacobson, The Old Testament and the Neighbor", "summary": "An open study of neighbor obligation that locates the gēr within Israel's relational reach while noting the category's foreignness, vulnerability, and lack of ordinary kin protection.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Rolf A. Jacobson and Karl N. Jacobson", "title": "The Old Testament and the Neighbor", "year": 2017, "publisher": "Word & World 37(1)", "identifier": "https://wordandworld.luthersem.edu/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/37-1_The_Neighbor/The%20Old%20Testament%20and%20the%20Neighbor.pdf" }, { "id": "source/jerryson-juergensmeyer-buddhist-warfare", "type": "source", "label": "Jerryson and Juergensmeyer, Buddhist Warfare", "summary": "Edited volume on historical and contemporary Buddhist participation in war, showing variation across traditions and the contested relation between doctrinal nonviolence and political militancy.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Michael K. Jerryson, Mark Juergensmeyer", "title": "Buddhist Warfare", "year": 2010, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://global.oup.com/academic/product/buddhist-warfare-9780195394839", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "jurisdiction": "United States", "licenseId": "Copyright", "licenseUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/", "evidenceUrl": "https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9780199741380_A24395299/preview-9780199741380_A24395299.pdf", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Michael K. Jerryson and Mark Juergensmeyer (2010)" } }, { "id": "source/johns-quranic-job", "type": "source", "label": "Johns, Qur'anic presentation of Job (1999)", "summary": "Close literary study of the six Qur'anic Job verses, their intertexts, and how the tradition made Ayyūb a byword for patience.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "A. H. Johns", "title": "Narrative, Intertext and Allusion in the Qur'anic Presentation of Job", "year": 1999, "publisher": "Journal of Qur'anic Studies 1(1): 1–25, Edinburgh University Press", "identifier": "doi:10.3366/jqs.1999.1.1.1" }, { "id": "source/johnson-cureton-kant-moral", "type": "source", "label": "Johnson & Cureton, Kant's Moral Philosophy", "summary": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry surveying Kant’s moral corpus and key debates over duty, autonomy, and the categorical imperative.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Robert Johnson and Adam Cureton", "title": "Kant's Moral Philosophy", "year": 2025, "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "type": "source", "label": "Jowett, Plato's Phaedo (1892)", "summary": "The public-domain third-edition Jowett translation, accessed in an edition-derived transcription and cross-checked against independent public copies. Stephanus subdivisions were checked against a locator-marked scholarly presentation.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Plato", "title": "The Dialogues of Plato, Volume II, 3rd ed.: Phaedo", "year": 1892, "publisher": "Clarendon Press, Oxford", "identifier": "https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/plato-dialogues-vol-2", "translator": "Benjamin Jowett", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Benjamin Jowett (1892)" } }, { "id": "source/jowett-politics-1885", "type": "source", "label": "Jowett, Politics (1885)", "summary": "Benjamin Jowett's 1885 English translation of Aristotle's Politics, used as the textual basis for quoted passages.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Aristotle", "title": "The Politics of Aristotle", "year": 1885, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/aristotle-politics", "translator": "Benjamin Jowett", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/aristotle-politics", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Aristotle, translated by Benjamin Jowett (1885)" } }, { "id": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "type": "source", "label": "Jowett, Plato: The Republic (1892)", "summary": "Public-domain English translation used for the selected passages, with locator stability and wording control sufficient for direct quotation.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Plato", "title": "The Republic of Plato", "year": 1892, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55201", "translator": "Benjamin Jowett", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55201", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Plato, The Republic (trans. Benjamin Jowett, 1892)" } }, { "id": "source/kjv-bible", "type": "source", "label": "King James Version", "summary": "The historic English Bible translation first published in 1611. The Atlas quotations use the public-domain, modernized standard KJV text as accessed through BibleGateway, not the original 1611 spelling and typography.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "The Holy Bible, King James Version", "year": 1611, "identifier": "https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/King-James-Version-KJV-Bible/", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "King James Version (standard modernized text; first published 1611)" } }, { "id": "source/komline-augustine-will", "type": "source", "label": "Komline, Augustine on the Will", "summary": "A current theological history of Augustine's accounts of will and grace. Its chapter on the fallen will situates Confessions VIII within Augustine's Pauline diagnosis without collapsing his whole career into one static doctrine.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Han-luen Kantzer Komline", "title": "Augustine on the Will: A Theological Account", "year": 2020, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190948801.001.0001" }, { "id": "source/konstan-epicurus", "type": "source", "label": "Konstan, Epicurus", "summary": "Its interpretive control is to position Epicurus as a coherent therapeutic philosophy, treating flourishing as security from fear through measured desire and disciplined judgment.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "David Konstan", "title": "Epicurus", "year": 2022, "publisher": "The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/epicurus/", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/korsgaard-creating-kingdom-ends", "type": "source", "label": "Korsgaard, Creating the Kingdom of Ends", "summary": "A systematic collection of essays in which Korsgaard develops a contemporary reconstruction of Kant’s ethical project around autonomy, agency, and ends.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Christine M. Korsgaard", "title": "Creating the Kingdom of Ends", "year": 1996, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "9780521499620", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics", "type": "source", "label": "Kraut, Aristotle's Ethics", "summary": "Its interpretive control is Aristotle's flourishing as eudaimonia governed by virtue and practical wisdom, where a life is good insofar as reason governs desire and action.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Richard Kraut", "title": "Aristotle's Ethics", "year": 2022, "publisher": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2022/entries/aristotle-ethics/", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/kraut-aristotle-political-philosophy-2002", "type": "source", "label": "Kraut, Aristotle: Political Philosophy", "summary": "A modern scholarly overview of Aristotle’s political project, including constitutional typology and the role of the common advantage.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Richard Kraut", "title": "Aristotle: Political Philosophy", "year": 2002, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198782001.001.0001", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/lambert-bwl", "type": "source", "label": "Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (1960)", "summary": "The foundational modern edition of the Babylonian wisdom corpus, including Ludlul bēl nēmeqi, with transliteration, facing translation, and commentary. Superseded in detail by later editions but still the standard reference wording in comparative scholarship.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "critical-edition", "author": "W. G. Lambert", "title": "Babylonian Wisdom Literature", "year": 1960, "publisher": "Clarendon Press, Oxford (reprinted Eisenbrauns, 1996)", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/lambert-millard-atrahasis", "type": "source", "label": "Lambert and Millard's Atra-ḫasīs edition", "summary": "The foundational critical edition of the Old Babylonian Atrahasis epic. Its tablets are damaged and later recensions vary, so it anchors the text without pretending that one surviving manuscript was the only form of the flood tradition.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "critical-edition", "author": "W. G. Lambert and A. R. Millard, with Miguel Civil", "title": "Atra-ḫasīs: The Babylonian Story of the Flood", "year": 1969, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "ISBN 0-19-813153-4" }, { "id": "source/lamm-jewish-mourning", "type": "source", "label": "Lamm, The Jewish Way in Death and Mourning (1969)", "summary": "The widely used practical reference on Jewish mourning observance, including shiva. A rabbinic guide rather than academic scholarship — labeled accordingly; supplement with an academic treatment when the ritual lens deepens.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "popular-work", "author": "Maurice Lamm", "title": "The Jewish Way in Death and Mourning", "year": 1969, "publisher": "Jonathan David Publishers, New York" }, { "id": "source/legge-analects-1893", "type": "source", "label": "Legge, Analects (1893)", "summary": "James Legge's 1893 revision of The Analects, used as a widely cited public-domain English rendering of early Confucian material.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Confucius", "title": "The Chinese Classics vol. I / Confucian Analects", "year": 1893, "publisher": "Project Gutenberg / The Chinese Classics", "identifier": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3330", "translator": "James Legge", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "James Legge (1893)" } }, { "id": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "type": "source", "label": "Legge, Great Learning (1893)", "summary": "James Legge’s public-domain English rendering of the Great Learning used for passage-level quotations.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Confucius", "title": "The Chinese Classics, Vol. I: The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean and the Analects", "year": 1893, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3330", "translator": "James Legge", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3330", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "James Legge (1893)" } }, { "id": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "type": "source", "label": "Legge, Mencius (1895)", "summary": "James Legge’s 1895 English rendering of Mengzi, used as a public-domain quotation source for canonical passages.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Mengzi", "title": "The Chinese Classics, Vol. II: The Works of Mencius", "year": 1895, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2404", "translator": "James Legge", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "James Legge (1895)" } }, { "id": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "type": "source", "label": "Legge, The Shû King (SBE 3, 1879)", "summary": "James Legge's public-domain translation of the Shû King in Sacred Books of the East 3 supplies the quoted wording and part/book/section locators.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Shû King (Book of Documents)", "title": "The Sacred Books of China, Part I: The Shû King", "year": 1879, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://sacred-texts.com/cfu/sbe03/index.htm", "translator": "James Legge", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sacred_Books_of_the_East_-_Volume_3.djvu", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "James Legge, trans., The Shû King, Sacred Books of the East 3 (1879)" } }, { "id": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "type": "source", "label": "Legge, Tao Te Ching (The Texts of Taoism, Part I)", "summary": "James Legge's 1891 English translation of the Tao Teh King in The Texts of Taoism, Part I, Sacred Books of the East vol. 39. It supplies public-domain wording, but its terminology and interpretive notes require modern scholarly controls.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Laozi", "title": "The Texts of Taoism, Part I / The Tao Teh King", "year": 1891, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/216", "translator": "James Legge", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/216", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "James Legge (1891, The Texts of Taoism, Part I)" } }, { "id": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "type": "source", "label": "Legge, Writings of Kwang-tze (The Texts of Taoism, Part I)", "summary": "James Legge's 1891 English translation of the Writings of Kwang-dze (Books I–XVII), included in The Texts of Taoism, Part I, Sacred Books of the East vol. 39. It supplies public-domain wording, but its terminology and interpretive notes require modern scholarly controls.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Zhuangzi", "title": "The Texts of Taoism, Part I / The Writings of Kwang-tze", "year": 1891, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/tzu-the-texts-of-taoism-part-i", "translator": "James Legge", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/tzu-the-texts-of-taoism-part-i", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "James Legge (1891, The Texts of Taoism, Part I)" } }, { "id": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "type": "source", "label": "Long, Discourses and Encheiridion of Epictetus (1877)", "summary": "A public-domain translation verified against its 1877 edition. Long's parenthetical Greek is retained where it exposes distinctions that smooth modern control-language can conceal.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Epictetus", "title": "The Discourses of Epictetus; with the Encheiridion and Fragments", "year": 1877, "publisher": "George Bell and Sons", "identifier": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Discourses_of_Epictetus;_with_the_Encheiridion_and_Fragments", "translator": "George Long", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "George Long (1877)" } }, { "id": "source/long-epictetus-guide", "type": "source", "label": "Long, Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life", "summary": "A major modern study of Epictetus's freedom, judgment, volition, integrity, theology, and social practice, used to resist turning the Handbook into isolated self-help maxims.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "A. A. Long", "title": "Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life", "year": 2002, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/0199245568.001.0001" }, { "id": "source/long-jainism-introduction", "type": "source", "label": "Long, Jainism: An Introduction", "summary": "A modern introduction to Jain philosophy, history, ethics, and practice, including ahiṃsā and the gradation of lay and mendicant discipline.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Jeffery D. Long", "title": "Jainism: An Introduction", "year": 2009, "publisher": "I.B. Tauris", "identifier": "ISBN 9781845116255", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "jurisdiction": "United Kingdom", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Jeffery D. Long, Jainism: An Introduction (2009)" } }, { "id": "source/long-meditations-1862", "type": "source", "label": "Marcus Aurelius, The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Long, 1862)", "summary": "George Long's 1862 English translation of Marcus Aurelius' philosophical notebook text, Project Gutenberg text, with clear older/dated nineteenth-century wording.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome", "title": "Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus", "year": 1862, "publisher": "Bell and Daldy", "identifier": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15877", "translator": "George Long", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "licenseId": "public-domain-US", "licenseUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15877", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Project Gutenberg eBook #15877 (public-domain statement)" } }, { "id": "source/lorenz-ancient-soul", "type": "source", "label": "Lorenz, Ancient Theories of Soul", "summary": "A peer-reviewed reference overview used for the Phaedo's arguments, Cebes' objection, and the warning that ancient psychē should not be collapsed into the modern category mind.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Hendrik Lorenz", "title": "Ancient Theories of Soul", "year": 2024, "publisher": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/" }, { "id": "source/luz-matthew-1-7-hermeneia-2007", "type": "source", "label": "Ulrich Luz, Matthew 1–7: A Commentary", "summary": "Hermeneia translation-focused commentary on Matthew 1–7 with sustained attention to discourse structure, ethics, and redactional development.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Ulrich Luz", "title": "Matthew 1–7: A Commentary", "year": 2007, "publisher": "Fortress Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780800660994", "translator": "James E. Crouch", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "jurisdiction": "United States", "creditLine": "The work is used for metadata and interpretation tracking only." } }, { "id": "source/magnone-deluge", "type": "source", "label": "Magnone, Floodlighting the Deluge", "summary": "A comparative argument for autonomous development of the Manu flood narrative, useful as the strongest counterweight to diffusion claims and as a warning that common survival motifs can be structurally predictable.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Paolo Magnone", "title": "Floodlighting the Deluge: Traditions in Comparison", "year": 2000, "publisher": "Studia Indologiczne 7", "identifier": "https://publicatt.unicatt.it/handle/10807/118803" }, { "id": "source/malinar-bhagavad-gita", "type": "source", "label": "Malinar, The Bhagavadgita: Doctrines and Contexts", "summary": "A standard modern study situating the Gītā's plural teachings within epic, philosophical, religious, and political contexts. Used as a contextual control without invented page locators.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Angelika Malinar", "title": "The Bhagavadgita: Doctrines and Contexts", "year": 2007, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780521883641" }, { "id": "source/martin-corinthian-body", "type": "source", "label": "Martin, The Corinthian Body", "summary": "A major historical study of competing constructions of the body in Roman Corinth, used to keep Paul's resurrection argument inside its Jewish and Greco-Roman social world rather than a modern material-versus-immaterial binary.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Dale B. Martin", "title": "The Corinthian Body", "year": 1995, "publisher": "Yale University Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780300062052" }, { "id": "source/martin-ot-hospitality", "type": "source", "label": "Martin, Old Testament Foundations for Christian Hospitality", "summary": "An open-access study of biblical hospitality that treats Hebrews 13:2 as probably alluding to Abraham while preserving Tobit and other angel-host accounts as alternatives.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Lee Roy Martin", "title": "Old Testament Foundations for Christian Hospitality", "year": 2014, "publisher": "Verbum et Ecclesia 35(1)", "identifier": "https://scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S2074-77052014000100004&script=sci_arttext" }, { "id": "source/mccarthy-1973-inauguration-monarchy", "type": "source", "label": "McCarthy, The Inauguration of Monarchy in Israel", "summary": "A form-critical study of 1 Samuel 8-12 that evaluates how the Samuel narrative structures anti-royal warning and later legitimation language.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Dennis J. McCarthy, S.J.", "title": "The Inauguration of Monarchy in Israel: A Form-Critical Study of 1 Samuel 8-12", "year": 1973, "publisher": "Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology, 27(4): 401-412", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1177/002096437302700403", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/milgrom-leviticus", "type": "source", "label": "Milgrom, Leviticus 17–22", "summary": "A standard critical commentary on the Holiness collection, used as a control for the social and legal setting of Leviticus 19. Page-level text was not accessed for this draft, so no page claim is made.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Jacob Milgrom", "title": "Leviticus 17–22: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary", "year": 2000, "publisher": "Doubleday", "identifier": "ISBN 9780385015680" }, { "id": "source/mill-on-liberty-1859", "type": "source", "label": "Mill, On Liberty (1859)", "summary": "Mill’s classic articulation of the harm principle and the limits of social and political interference with individual liberty.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "John Stuart Mill", "title": "On Liberty", "year": 1859, "publisher": "John W. Parker and Son / Project Gutenberg", "identifier": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34901", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "John Stuart Mill (1859)" } }, { "id": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863", "type": "source", "label": "Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)", "summary": "Mill’s foundational utilitarian tract defending the principle that utility is the standard of right action, including his distinction between higher and lower pleasures.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "John Stuart Mill", "title": "Utilitarianism", "year": 1863, "publisher": "Parker, Son, and Bourn / Project Gutenberg", "identifier": "https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11224", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "John Stuart Mill (1863)" } }, { "id": "source/morschauser-hospitality-hostages", "type": "source", "label": "Morschauser, Hospitality, Hostiles and Hostages", "summary": "A minority legal reconstruction of Genesis 19 that reads the encounter through interrogation, protection, and hostages rather than a generic hospitality-code explanation.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Scott Morschauser", "title": "'Hospitality', Hostiles and Hostages: On the Legal Background to Genesis 19.1–9", "year": 2003, "publisher": "Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 27(4)", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1177/030908920302700404" }, { "id": "source/mueller-dhammapada", "type": "source", "label": "Müller, The Dhammapada (SBE X)", "summary": "F. Max Müller's 1881 English translation of the Dhammapada in the Sacred Books of the East series. Public domain; dated in places — Phase 1 should add a modern translation (e.g. Fronsdal 2005) for comparison.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "The Dhammapada: A Collection of Verses (Sacred Books of the East, Vol. X)", "year": 1881, "publisher": "Clarendon Press, Oxford", "translator": "F. Max Müller", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "F. Max Müller (1881)" } }, { "id": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "type": "source", "label": "Müller, Kaṭha-Upanishad (1884)", "summary": "A public-domain Victorian translation checked against the 1884 scan. Useful for draft quotation, but its supplied parentheses, Vedāntic and Śaṅkara framing, and dated renderings require Sanskrit and a modern critical translation as controls.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad (traditional text)", "title": "The Upanishads, Part II: The Kaṭha-Upanishad, in The Sacred Books of the East, vol. XV", "year": 1884, "publisher": "Clarendon Press, Oxford", "identifier": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sacred_Books_of_the_East/Volume_15/Katha-upanishad", "translator": "F. Max Müller", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "F. Max Müller (1884)" } }, { "id": "source/murray-odyssey", "type": "source", "label": "Murray, Odyssey (1919)", "summary": "A public-domain English translation with stable book-and-line access through Perseus. Its archaic register is serviceable for verified draft quotations; a modern critical translation should be cross-checked at human review.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Homer", "title": "The Odyssey", "year": 1919, "publisher": "Harvard University Press / William Heinemann", "identifier": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136", "translator": "A. T. Murray", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "A. T. Murray (1919)" } }, { "id": "source/muslim-guest-right", "type": "source", "label": "Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, guest-right report", "summary": "Canonical Sunni hadith collection cited for the reciprocal limit that a guest must not remain until the host lacks the means to entertain him. The accessed English presentation did not reliably identify its translator, so it supports a claim locator but no Atlas passage quotation.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj", "title": "Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim", "identifier": "https://sunnah.com/muslim:48c" }, { "id": "source/newsom-job", "type": "source", "label": "Newsom, The Book of Job (2003)", "summary": "A standard academic monograph reading Job as a polyphonic contest between genres and moral imaginations rather than a single argument.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Carol A. Newsom", "title": "The Book of Job: A Contest of Moral Imaginations", "year": 2003, "publisher": "Oxford University Press" }, { "id": "source/nylan-five-confucian-classics-2001", "type": "source", "label": "Nylan, The Five Confucian Classics (2001)", "summary": "Modern overview of the canon formation and textual histories of five major Confucian classics.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Michael Nylan", "title": "The Five \"Confucian\" Classics", "year": 2001, "publisher": "Yale University Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780300081855", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/okeefe-epicureanism", "type": "source", "label": "O'Keefe, Epicureanism", "summary": "Its interpretive control is to present Epicurean flourishing as the intelligent management of pleasure and pain, making tranquility and practical choice the core telos.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Tim O'Keefe", "title": "Epicureanism", "year": 2010, "publisher": "University of California Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780520264710", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/olberding-moral-exemplars", "type": "source", "label": "Olberding, Moral Exemplars in the Analects: The Good Person Is That", "summary": "Its interpretive control is to frame flourishing through Confucian moral exemplarity and ritual, prioritizing the cultivation of the Good Person over external metrics of success.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Amy Olberding", "title": "Moral Exemplars in the Analects: The Good Person Is That", "year": 2012, "publisher": "Routledge", "identifier": "ISBN 9780415896818", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads", "type": "source", "label": "Olivelle, The Early Upaniṣads", "summary": "A modern annotated Sanskrit text and translation used as the philological and textual control for Müller's public-domain wording and for the Kaṭha's late, stratified position among the early Upaniṣads.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "critical-edition", "author": "Patrick Olivelle", "title": "The Early Upaniṣads: Annotated Text and Translation", "year": 1998, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "DOI 10.1093/oso/9780195124354.001.0001" }, { "id": "source/oneill-acting-principle", "type": "source", "label": "O'Neill, Acting on Principle", "summary": "A foundational Kantian ethics defense arguing that Kant’s moral theory is a practical, action-guiding method rooted in universalizable principles.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Onora O'Neill", "title": "Acting on Principle: An Essay on Kantian Ethics", "year": 1975, "publisher": "Columbia University Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780231038485", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "type": "source", "label": "Patrick, Sextus Empiricus and Greek Scepticism", "summary": "Mary Mills Patrick's 1899 monograph on Sextus Empiricus and Greek Scepticism, including a separate embedded translation of Book I of Sextus Empiricus's Pyrrhonic Sketches. This source combines historical-philological framing with a translated excerpt; the terminology uses period spellings such as \"Scepticism\" and \"Pyrrhonic,\" which are retained in the original print vocabulary.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Patrick, Mary Mills", "title": "Sextus Empiricus and Greek Scepticism: A Degree Thesis accompanied by a Translation of the First Book of the Pyrrhonic Sketches", "year": 1899, "publisher": "Cambridge: Deighton Bell & Co.; London: George Bell & Sons", "identifier": "https://archive.org/details/cu31924029002561", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "licenseId": "CC-PDM-1.0", "licenseUrl": "https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/", "evidenceUrl": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sextus_Empiricus_and_Greek_scepticism_.._(IA_cu31924029002561).pdf", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Wikimedia Commons and Internet Archive metadata state this scan is public domain, including U.S. public-domain status for pre-1931 publication." } }, { "id": "source/perin-demands-reason", "type": "source", "label": "Perin, The Demands of Reason", "summary": "Oxford monograph analyzing Sextus Empiricus and Pyrrhonian skepticism from a contemporary epistemic and practical perspective.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Casey Perin", "title": "The Demands of Reason: An Essay on Pyrrhonian Scepticism", "year": 2010, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199557905.001.0001", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/pickthall-quran", "type": "source", "label": "Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (1930)", "summary": "The first major English translation of the Qur'an by a Muslim native speaker of English. Public domain; archaic register. Phase 2 should add a modern academic translation (e.g. Abdel Haleem 2004 or The Study Quran 2015) for comparison.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "The Meaning of the Glorious Koran", "year": 1930, "publisher": "A. A. Knopf, New York", "translator": "Marmaduke Pickthall", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Marmaduke Pickthall (1930)" } }, { "id": "source/pilkington-confessions", "type": "source", "label": "Pilkington, Confessions (1876)", "summary": "A public-domain Victorian translation used for exact Book VIII quotation. Its theological vocabulary is dated; a modern critical translation should be cross-checked during human review.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Augustine of Hippo", "title": "The Confessions of St. Augustine in Thirteen Books", "year": 1876, "publisher": "T. & T. Clark", "identifier": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_I/Volume_I/Confessions/Book_VIII", "translator": "J. G. Pilkington", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "J. G. Pilkington (1876)" } }, { "id": "source/pines-everlasting-empire", "type": "source", "label": "Pines, The Everlasting Empire", "summary": "A study of Chinese political culture and imperial legitimacy used to contextualize ruler, literati, and popular roles without treating Mencius as a modern theory of popular sovereignty.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Yuri Pines", "title": "The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy", "year": 2012, "publisher": "Princeton University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691134956.001.0001", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/r-t-france-gospel-of-matthew-nicnt-2007", "type": "source", "label": "R. T. France, The Gospel of Matthew", "summary": "A modern NICNT commentary that frames the Matthean commands in their first-century Jewish and Roman context while tracking syntax, discourse flow, and theological emphasis.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "R. T. France", "title": "The Gospel of Matthew", "year": 2007, "publisher": "Eerdmans", "identifier": "ISBN 9780802825018", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "jurisdiction": "United States", "creditLine": "The work is used for metadata and interpretation tracking only." } }, { "id": "source/reece-strangers-welcome", "type": "source", "label": "Reece, The Stranger's Welcome", "summary": "A major oral-poetic study of the Homeric hospitality type-scene and its recurrent elements. Its typology is useful without treating every reconstruction as consensus or the poem as transparent social ethnography.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Steve Reece", "title": "The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene", "year": 1993, "publisher": "University of Michigan Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.13509" }, { "id": "source/riegel-confucius", "type": "source", "label": "Riegel, Confucius", "summary": "Its interpretive control is to define human flourishing through cultivated role-based virtue, ritual, and moral self-cultivation toward benevolence.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Jeffrey Riegel", "title": "Confucius", "year": 2013, "publisher": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2013/entries/confucius/", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/rose-dowden-deucalion", "type": "source", "label": "Oxford Classical Dictionary: Deucalion", "summary": "A concise modern classical reference that situates Deucalion as a Greek new-beginning figure and argues for a Near Eastern background, while the surviving Greek versions retain distinct local genealogical purposes.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Herbert Jennings Rose and Ken Dowden", "title": "Deucalion, Oxford Classical Dictionary", "year": 2015, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2131" }, { "id": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "type": "source", "label": "Ross, W. D., Nicomachean Ethics (1925)", "summary": "W. D. Ross translation in volume IX of The Works of Aristotle Translated into English, offering a historical English wording for Aristotle's ethical treatise.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Aristotle", "title": "The Works of Aristotle Translated into English", "year": 1925, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics_(Ross)", "translator": "W. D. Ross", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics_(Ross)", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "W. D. Ross (1925)" } }, { "id": "source/roth-zhuangzi", "type": "source", "label": "Roth, The Contemplative Foundations of Classical Daoism", "summary": "Harold D. Roth's study of contemplative practice and textual formation in classical Daoism, used as a modern control on treating the Zhuangzi as a single-author, single-stratum work.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Harold D. Roth", "title": "The Contemplative Foundations of Classical Daoism", "year": 2021, "publisher": "State University of New York Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.18253721", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/salihin-hospitality-rights", "type": "source", "label": "Salihin, Ali, and Muhammad, Hospitality as a Constituent of Human Rights", "summary": "A peer-reviewed study assembling prophetic hospitality reports and juristic positions. Its argument favors enforceable hospitality, so the Atlas uses it to document evidence and disagreement rather than treating its advocacy thesis as consensus.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Suhairin Muhammad Salihin, Ahmad al-Mujtaba Banga Ali, and Ahmad Hasan Muhammad", "title": "Hospitality as a Constituent of Human Rights in the Light of the Prophetic Traditions", "year": 2017, "publisher": "Journal of Islam in Asia 14(1), pp. 107–139", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.31436/jia.v14i1.585" }, { "id": "source/sangiacomo-buddhist-craving", "type": "source", "label": "Sangiacomo, The Meaning of Existence (bhava)", "summary": "An open-access philosophical study of bhava in early Buddhist discourses that analyzes existence as an appropriative stance toward experience and clarifies why 'existence' should not be silently replaced by the more processual 'becoming.'", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Andrea Sangiacomo", "title": "The Meaning of Existence (bhava) in the Pāli Discourses of the Buddha", "year": 2022, "publisher": "British Journal for the History of Philosophy 30(6), pp. 931–952", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1080/09608788.2022.2107998" }, { "id": "source/saritoprak-welcoming-stranger", "type": "source", "label": "Saritoprak, Welcoming the Stranger in Islam", "summary": "A current study of Abrahamic hospitality in Islamic sources and contemporary application, used here to situate the Qur'anic Abraham narrative without turning it into a complete juristic code.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Zeki Saritoprak", "title": "Welcoming the Stranger in Islam: Abrahamic Hospitality and Contemporary Implications, in Welcoming the Stranger: Abrahamic Hospitality and Its Contemporary Implications, ed. Ori Z. Soltes and Rachel Stern, pp. 72–81", "year": 2024, "publisher": "Fordham University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1515/9781531507343-008" }, { "id": "source/schofield-plato-political-philosophy-2006", "type": "source", "label": "Schofield, Plato: Political Philosophy", "summary": "Modern scholarly monograph used for political-theoretical interpretation and dating/structure notes on the Republic.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Malcolm Schofield", "title": "Plato: Political Philosophy", "year": 2006, "publisher": "Oxford University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199249619.001.0001", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/sellars-stoicism", "type": "source", "label": "Sellars, Stoicism", "summary": "John Sellars’ first 2006 monograph on Stoic ethics, physics, logic, and later tradition; later Routledge editions are based on this publication.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "John Sellars", "title": "Stoicism", "year": 2006, "publisher": "Acumen", "identifier": "1-84465-053-7", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/sherman-making-necessity-virtue", "type": "source", "label": "Sherman, Making a Necessity of Virtue", "summary": "Its interpretive control is to frame virtue as disciplined practice that stabilizes flourishing by binding character formation to repeated moral obligation.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Nancy Sherman", "title": "Making a Necessity of Virtue: Aristotle and Kant on Virtue", "year": 1997, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511624971", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/sim-remastering-morals", "type": "source", "label": "Sim, Remastering Morals", "summary": "A comparative monograph examining ethical convergence and disagreement between Aristotle's and Confucius's moral vocabularies through a close conceptual dialogue.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "May Sim", "title": "Remastering Morals with Aristotle and Confucius", "year": 2007, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "doi:10.1017/CBO9780511497841", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/slingerland-analects", "type": "source", "label": "Slingerland, Confucius: Analects", "summary": "Its interpretive control is to foreground Confucian flourishing as ethical self-cultivation shaped by ritual practice and communal role obligations.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Edward Slingerland", "title": "Confucius: Analects, with Selections from Traditional Commentaries", "year": 2003, "publisher": "Hackett", "identifier": "ISBN 9780872206359", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/sujato-an3-65", "type": "source", "label": "Sujato, The Kesamutti Discourse (AN 3.65)", "summary": "Bhikkhu Sujato's segment-aligned translation of the Kesamutti discourse, listed on SuttaCentral as AN 3.65.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "The Kesamutti Discourse (Aṅguttara Nikāya 3.65)", "year": 2020, "publisher": "SuttaCentral", "identifier": "https://suttacentral.net/an3.65/en/sujato", "translator": "Bhikkhu Sujato", "rights": { "status": "open-license", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "licenseId": "CC0-1.0", "licenseUrl": "https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/", "evidenceUrl": "https://suttacentral.net/licensing", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2020), SuttaCentral" } }, { "id": "source/sujato-iti44", "type": "source", "label": "Sujato, Facets of Quenching (Iti 44)", "summary": "Bhikkhu Sujato's segment-aligned CC0 translation, verified through SuttaCentral's Bilara APIs and used for the two nibbāna elements with exact segment locators. Live metadata calls the discourse 'Facets of Quenching'; the Bilara text heading renders it 'Elements of Extinguishment.'", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "Facets of Quenching (Nibbānadhātusutta, Itivuttaka 44)", "year": 2020, "publisher": "SuttaCentral", "identifier": "https://suttacentral.net/iti44/en/sujato", "translator": "Bhikkhu Sujato", "rights": { "status": "open-license", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "licenseId": "CC0-1.0", "licenseUrl": "https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/", "evidenceUrl": "https://suttacentral.net/licensing", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2020)" } }, { "id": "source/sujato-mn72", "type": "source", "label": "Sujato, With Vacchagotta on Fire (MN 72)", "summary": "Bhikkhu Sujato's segment-aligned CC0 translation, verified through SuttaCentral's Bilara text API and used for the four postmortem predicates and fire/fuel analogy.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "With Vacchagotta on Fire (Aggivacchasutta, Majjhima Nikāya 72)", "year": 2018, "publisher": "SuttaCentral", "identifier": "https://suttacentral.net/mn72/en/sujato", "translator": "Bhikkhu Sujato", "rights": { "status": "open-license", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "licenseId": "CC0-1.0", "licenseUrl": "https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/", "evidenceUrl": "https://suttacentral.net/licensing", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2018)" } }, { "id": "source/sujato-sn44-10", "type": "source", "label": "Sujato, With Ānanda (SN 44.10)", "summary": "Bhikkhu Sujato's segment-aligned CC0 translation, verified through SuttaCentral's Bilara text API. Its temporal rendering of atthattā/natthattā as whether the self survives is recorded as a defensible but not uncontested translation choice.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "With Ānanda (Ānandasutta, Saṃyutta Nikāya 44.10)", "year": 2018, "publisher": "SuttaCentral", "identifier": "https://suttacentral.net/sn44.10/en/sujato", "translator": "Bhikkhu Sujato", "rights": { "status": "open-license", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "licenseId": "CC0-1.0", "licenseUrl": "https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/", "evidenceUrl": "https://suttacentral.net/licensing", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2018)" } }, { "id": "source/sujato-sn56-11", "type": "source", "label": "Sujato, Rolling Forth the Wheel of Dhamma (SN 56.11)", "summary": "A segment-addressable CC0 translation in SuttaCentral's published Bilara data. The explicit future-lives phrase prevents the second noble truth from being reduced to a rebirth-free wellness maxim.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "Rolling Forth the Wheel of Dhamma (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, SN 56.11)", "year": 2018, "publisher": "SuttaCentral", "identifier": "https://suttacentral.net/sn56.11/en/sujato", "translator": "Bhikkhu Sujato", "rights": { "status": "open-license", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "licenseId": "CC0-1.0", "licenseUrl": "https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/", "evidenceUrl": "https://suttacentral.net/licensing", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2018)" } }, { "id": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata", "type": "source", "label": "Sujato, Sutta Nipāta", "summary": "Bhikkhu Sujato's SuttaCentral Bilara translation for the Sutta Nipāta, including the SNP 1.8 and SNP 4.15 verse segments used here. The source is CC0-1.0 and supports exact segment-anchored quotation.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "Sutta Nipāta (Kn Sutta Nipāta, Snp)", "year": 2020, "publisher": "SuttaCentral", "identifier": "https://suttacentral.net/snp1.8/en/sujato", "translator": "Bhikkhu Sujato", "rights": { "status": "open-license", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "licenseId": "CC0-1.0", "licenseUrl": "https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/", "evidenceUrl": "https://suttacentral.net/licensing", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Bhikkhu Sujato (2020)" } }, { "id": "source/tahtinen-ahimsa", "type": "source", "label": "Tähtinen, Ahiṃsā", "summary": "A comparative historical study of ahiṃsā across Jain, Buddhist, and Brahmanical materials; useful for shared terminology without presuming identical doctrines.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Unto Tähtinen", "title": "Ahiṃsā: Non-violence in Indian Tradition", "year": 1976, "publisher": "Rider", "identifier": "ISBN 9780091233402", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "jurisdiction": "United Kingdom", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Unto Tähtinen, Ahiṃsā (1976)" } }, { "id": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "type": "source", "label": "Telang, Bhagavadgîtâ (1882)", "summary": "A public-domain Sacred Books of the East translation verified against the 1882 scan. Its Victorian terminology is dated, so Sanskrit controls and modern scholarship accompany every interpretive claim.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Bhagavad Gītā (Mahābhārata 6.23–40)", "title": "The Bhagavadgîtâ, in The Bhagavadgîtâ with the Sanatsugâtîya and the Anugîtâ, Sacred Books of the East 8", "year": 1882, "publisher": "Clarendon Press", "identifier": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sacred_Books_of_the_East_-_Volume_VIII.djvu", "translator": "Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang (1882)" } }, { "id": "source/thanissaro-sn36-6", "type": "source", "label": "Thanissaro, Sallatha Sutta translation (1997)", "summary": "English translation of SN 36.6 ('The Arrow') hosted on Access to Insight. Licensed CC BY-NC 4.0 — brief attributed excerpts only; for fully open reuse prefer Bhikkhu Sujato's public-domain translations on SuttaCentral.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "Sallatha Sutta: The Arrow (SN 36.6)", "year": 1997, "publisher": "Access to Insight", "identifier": "https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.006.than.html", "translator": "Thanissaro Bhikkhu", "rights": { "status": "open-license", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "licenseId": "CC-BY-NC-4.0", "licenseUrl": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.006.than.html", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997), Access to Insight; CC BY-NC 4.0" } }, { "id": "source/thompson-gilgamesh", "type": "source", "label": "Thompson's Epic of Gilgamish", "summary": "A public-domain 1928 translation used only for an edition-specific Tablet XI quotation. Its philology and poetic diction are dated, so George 2003 supplies the modern critical control and Thompson's later numbering anomaly is avoided.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "title": "The Epic of Gilgamish: A New Translation from a Collation of the Cuneiform Tablets in the British Museum", "year": 1928, "publisher": "Luzac & Co.", "identifier": "https://sacred-texts.com/ane/eog/eog13.htm", "translator": "R. Campbell Thompson", "rights": { "status": "public-domain", "quotationPolicy": "quotation-allowed", "jurisdiction": "United States", "evidenceUrl": "https://www.copyright.gov/what-is-copyright/", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "R. Campbell Thompson (1928)" } }, { "id": "source/tigay-gilgamesh-evolution", "type": "source", "label": "Tigay, The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic", "summary": "A foundational text-historical reconstruction of how separate Sumerian and Akkadian materials became the Standard Babylonian epic; pages 214–229 treat Tablet XI's reuse of an Atrahasis flood version.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Jeffrey H. Tigay", "title": "The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic", "year": 1982, "publisher": "University of Pennsylvania Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780812278057" }, { "id": "source/upadhyaya-buddhism-gita", "type": "source", "label": "Upadhyaya, Early Buddhism's Impact on the Bhagavadgītā", "summary": "A directly comparative study arguing that early Buddhism affected Hindu thought in the Bhagavadgītā. Its 1968 influence thesis is stronger than the Atlas edge requires and is not treated as proof that one cited passage copied the other; it documents the historical debate behind the safer shared-environment label.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "K. N. Upadhyaya", "title": "The Impact of Early Buddhism on Hindu Thought (with Special Reference to the Bhagavadgītā)", "year": 1968, "publisher": "Philosophy East and West 18(3), pp. 163–173", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.2307/1398258" }, { "id": "source/van-norden-mengzi-2008", "type": "source", "label": "Van Norden, Mengzi", "summary": "A modern scholarly translation with selections from traditional commentaries, used as an interpretive and textual control rather than as the source of public quotations.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Mengzi", "title": "Mengzi: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries", "year": 2008, "publisher": "Hackett Publishing Company", "identifier": "ISBN 9780872209138", "translator": "Bryan W. Van Norden", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/vassilkov-indian-mesopotamian-floods", "type": "source", "label": "Vassilkov on Indian and Mesopotamian flood myths", "summary": "The principal modern case for genetic or assimilative influence on the Manu sequence, drawing on the ordered motif cluster and ancient contact. Its proposed route and symbolic links remain inference and are not treated as established fact.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Yaroslav Vassilkov", "title": "Some Observations on the Indian and the Mesopotamian Flood Myths", "year": 2014, "publisher": "Aramazd 8.1–2", "identifier": "https://www.academia.edu/9981910/Some_Observations_on_the_Indian_and_the_Mesopotamian_Flood_Myths" }, { "id": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus", "type": "source", "label": "Vogt, Sextus Empiricus", "summary": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Sextus Empiricus and Pyrrhonian skepticism, including references and entry revision history.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Katja Maria Vogt", "title": "Sextus Empiricus", "year": 2014, "publisher": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "identifier": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sextus-empiricus/", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/warren-cambridge-epicureanism", "type": "source", "label": "Warren, The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism", "summary": "Its interpretive control is to assemble diverse scholarship that frames Epicurean flourishing around prudent pleasure, friendship, and civic reason as practical conditions for the good life.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "James Warren", "title": "The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism", "year": 2009, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1017/CCOL9780521873475", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/watanabe-encheiridion", "type": "source", "label": "Watanabe, Epictetus: Encheiridion", "summary": "An open pedagogical Greek text and commentary based on Boter's critical edition, used to verify subsection numbering and distinctions among impulse, desire, aversion, and action with reservation. It is not itself a new critical edition.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Albert Watanabe", "title": "Epictetus: Encheiridion", "year": 2020, "publisher": "Dickinson College Commentaries", "identifier": "ISBN 9781947822139" }, { "id": "source/waters-reading-sodom", "type": "source", "label": "Waters, Reading Sodom through Sexual Violence Against Women", "summary": "A corrective reading that refuses to let hospitality-centered interpretation erase the threatened sexual violence against Lot's daughters.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "journal-article", "author": "Sonia E. Waters", "title": "Reading Sodom through Sexual Violence Against Women", "year": 2017, "publisher": "Interpretation 71(3)", "identifier": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0020964317698763" }, { "id": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism", "type": "source", "label": "Wiley, Historical Dictionary of Jainism", "summary": "A specialist reference work for Jain texts, concepts, communities, chronology, and the distinction between mendicant and lay vows.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "reference-work", "author": "Kristi L. Wiley", "title": "Historical Dictionary of Jainism", "year": 2004, "publisher": "Scarecrow Press", "identifier": "ISBN 9780810850514", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only", "jurisdiction": "United States", "assessedOn": "2026-07-15", "creditLine": "Kristi L. Wiley, Historical Dictionary of Jainism (2004)" } }, { "id": "source/wood-kantian-ethics", "type": "source", "label": "Wood, Kantian Ethics", "summary": "A major contemporary interpretation of Kantian ethics emphasizing autonomy, rights, and the structure of practical reason.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Allen W. Wood", "title": "Kantian Ethics", "year": 2007, "publisher": "Cambridge University Press", "identifier": "doi:10.1017/CBO9780511809651", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/yu-ethics-confucius-aristotle", "type": "source", "label": "Yu, Ethics of Confucius and Aristotle", "summary": "A close comparison of Aristotle and Confucius around virtue, moral self-formation, and the role of communal ethics in shaping practical flourishing.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "monograph", "author": "Jiyuan Yu", "title": "The Ethics of Confucius and Aristotle: Mirrors of Virtue", "year": 2007, "publisher": "Routledge", "identifier": "ISBN 9780415803052", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "source/ziporyn-zhuangzi-essential", "type": "source", "label": "Ziporyn, Zhuangzi: Essential Writings", "summary": "Hackett’s translated and annotated volume pairing Zhuangzi selections with traditional commentaries in a student- and scholar-oriented format.", "status": "draft", "sourceType": "translation", "author": "Brook Ziporyn", "title": "Zhuangzi: The Essential Writings, With Selections from Traditional Commentaries", "year": 2009, "publisher": "Hackett Publishing", "identifier": "9780872209114", "rights": { "status": "in-copyright", "quotationPolicy": "metadata-only" } }, { "id": "story/flood-survivor", "type": "story", "label": "The warned flood survivor", "summary": "A recurring narrative scaffold—catastrophe announced, one household or pair preserved in a vessel, land regained, life restarted—whose stable-looking outline carries sharply different accounts of divine motive, human responsibility, and what the renewed world requires.", "status": "draft", "motifs": [ "divine-warning", "rescue-vessel", "selected-survivor", "mountain-landing", "post-flood-sacrifice", "world-renewal" ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 6:5–9:17" }, { "source": "source/lambert-millard-atrahasis", "locator": "Tablet III" }, { "source": "source/frazer-apollodorus", "locator": "Library 1.7.2" }, { "source": "source/eggeling-satapatha", "locator": "Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 1.8.1.1–10" } ] }, { "id": "story/hidden-visitor", "type": "story", "label": "The hidden visitor", "summary": "A visitor arrives without an obvious divine identity, and the host's welcome becomes revelatory or consequential. Similar narrative tests do not by themselves establish borrowing, and some texts make the visitor's identity less hidden than later retellings imply.", "status": "draft", "motifs": [ "unrecognized-visitor", "household-welcome", "shared-meal", "revealed-identity", "consequential-reception" ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 18:1–19:3" }, { "source": "source/murray-odyssey", "locator": "Odyssey 1.120–124" }, { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "Qur'an 51:24–30" } ] }, { "id": "story/righteous-sufferer", "type": "story", "label": "The righteous sufferer", "summary": "A blameless person loses health, wealth, or family and contests the justice of the world — an archetype attested in Job and in older Mesopotamian works such as 'Ludlul bel nemeqi'. Cross-tradition links belong in comparison nodes, not here.", "status": "draft", "motifs": [ "undeserved-loss", "protest-against-heaven", "friends-as-accusers", "restoration" ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/newsom-job", "note": "Discusses Job alongside ancient Near Eastern righteous-sufferer literature." }, { "source": "source/lambert-bwl", "note": "Edition of the Mesopotamian righteous-sufferer corpus (Ludlul, Babylonian Theodicy)." } ] }, { "id": "text/acaranga-sutra", "type": "text", "label": "Ācārāṅga Sūtra", "summary": "A foundational Śvetāmbara disciplinary text whose layered instructions connect non-injury with vigilance, responsibility for causing or consenting to harm, and highly specific mendicant conduct.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Layered early Jain material; the relative age of its books and final redaction remain disputed", "language": "Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit", "canonicalStatus": "First Aṅga of the Śvetāmbara Jain canon", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 5, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Older strata conventionally placed in the mid-1st millennium BCE", "note": "The two books and their redaction are layered; this wide band is an orientation, not a single composition date.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/dundas-jains" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-1" }, { "source": "source/dundas-jains" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" } ] }, { "id": "text/analects", "type": "text", "label": "Analects", "summary": "A layered record of teachings attributed to Confucius and transmitted through many editorial layers and commentarial traditions.", "status": "draft", "composed": "5th-3rd century BCE, with substantial transmission and editorial layering", "language": "Classical Chinese", "canonicalStatus": "Foundational core text of Confucian tradition", "timeline": [ { "id": "compilation", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 5, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "5th-3rd century BCE", "note": "Authorship and compilation phases are disputed because the text is anthologized from earlier sayings.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/slingerland-analects" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893" }, { "source": "source/slingerland-analects" } ] }, { "id": "text/anguttara-nikaya", "type": "text", "label": "Aṅguttara Nikāya", "summary": "The 'Numbered Discourses' of the Pāli Canon. The current Atlas passage, AN 3.65, addresses uncertainty among the Kālāmas by testing teachings against unskillful roots, wise criticism, and consequences for harm or welfare rather than treating any single authority as sufficient.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Early Buddhist oral tradition; the collection took shape in the centuries after the Buddha and was committed to writing c. 1st century BCE", "language": "Pali", "canonicalStatus": "Fourth collection of the Sutta Piṭaka (Pāli Canon, Theravāda)", "timeline": [ { "id": "written-attestation", "kind": "attestation", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Committed to writing c. 1st century BCE after oral transmission", "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-an3-65" }, { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "note": "Overview of the Pāli Canon's structure and transmission." } ] }, { "id": "text/aristotle-politics", "type": "text", "label": "Aristotle, Politics", "summary": "Aristotle’s Politics sets out his account of the polis as a natural human association and analyzes the criterion by which constitutions are judged as proper or perverted.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Late 4th century BCE, with textual redaction and final compilation details disputed among scholars", "language": "Ancient Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Core text of the Aristotelian political tradition", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "4th century BCE (composition and redaction history disputed)", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-political-philosophy-2002" } ], "note": "The exact sequence of lecture notes and editorial compilation for the Politics text is not settled." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-political-philosophy-2002", "locator": "Aristotle, Politics" }, { "source": "source/jowett-politics-1885", "locator": "Politics 1253a2-3, 1279a25-31" } ] }, { "id": "text/atrahasis", "type": "text", "label": "Atra-ḫasīs", "summary": "An Akkadian primeval-history epic in which humans are made for divine labor, multiply noisily, survive escalating population controls, and nearly perish in a flood before a new demographic order is imposed.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Old Babylonian recension copied in the seventeenth century BCE; later fragmentary recensions also survive", "language": "Akkadian", "canonicalStatus": "Mesopotamian scholarly and literary tradition; no single closed religious canon", "timeline": [ { "id": "old-babylonian-recension", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 17, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "17th century BCE Old Babylonian recension", "citations": [ { "source": "source/lambert-millard-atrahasis" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/lambert-millard-atrahasis" }, { "source": "source/dalley-myths-mesopotamia" } ] }, { "id": "text/bhagavad-gita", "type": "text", "label": "Bhagavad Gītā", "summary": "A dialogue embedded in the Mahābhārata that answers Arjuna's crisis by joining disciplined action, knowledge, meditation, and devotion. Chapters 2–3 distinguish action from attachment to its fruits and analyze how attention, attachment, desire, anger, and obscured judgment form a destructive sequence.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Commonly dated between roughly the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE, with scholarly disagreement over layers and final form", "language": "Sanskrit", "canonicalStatus": "Influential Hindu smṛti scripture embedded in the Mahābhārata (Bhīṣma Parvan)", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 2, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 2, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "c. 2nd century BCE–2nd century CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/malinar-bhagavad-gita" } ], "note": "The work is layered and its date and final form remain debated." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/telang-bhagavad-gita", "locator": "Bhagavad Gītā 2–3" }, { "source": "source/malinar-bhagavad-gita" }, { "source": "source/framarin-desire-gita" } ] }, { "id": "text/book-of-documents", "type": "text", "label": "Book of Documents", "summary": "A canonical Shang–Zhou anthology in classical Chinese, used as a source for ritual and political claims about Heaven’s mandate and rulers’ obligations.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Core layers predate the first imperial canonization, with later editorial arrangement and transmission history", "language": "Classical Chinese", "canonicalStatus": "Shu Jing / Shangshu within the Confucian canon", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 11, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "11th-3rd century BCE (disputed)", "citations": [ { "source": "source/nylan-five-confucian-classics-2001", "locator": "chronology chapter" } ], "note": "Layering, excavation, and later transmission make precise date boundaries contested across the textual tradition." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-shu-king-1879", "locator": "Great Declaration" }, { "source": "source/nylan-five-confucian-classics-2001", "locator": "canon history note" } ] }, { "id": "text/book-of-job", "type": "text", "label": "Book of Job", "summary": "A prose-framed poetic dialogue in which a blameless man loses everything and disputes with his friends — and finally with God — over why. The Hebrew Bible's most sustained confrontation with innocent suffering.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Dialogues commonly dated c. 6th–4th century BCE; dating is debated and the prose frame may be older material", "language": "Hebrew (with Aramaic influence)", "canonicalStatus": "Ketuvim (Writings) of the Hebrew Bible; Old Testament wisdom literature in Christian canons", "timeline": [ { "id": "dialogue-composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 6, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "c. 6th–4th century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/newsom-job" } ], "note": "The poetic dialogues, prose frame, and final form may have different histories." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/newsom-job", "note": "Introduction covers composition, dating debates, and the prose/poetry tension." } ] }, { "id": "text/confessions", "type": "text", "label": "Confessions", "summary": "Augustine's prayerful autobiographical work, composed as both confession of sin and praise of God. Book VIII diagnoses habit as bondage and the will as internally divided, then narrates conversion as an event of scripture and grace rather than autonomous self-command.", "status": "draft", "composed": "c. 397–400 CE", "language": "Latin", "canonicalStatus": "Foundational work of Latin Christian theology, spiritual autobiography, and moral psychology; not biblical canon", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 397, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "end": { "value": 400, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "c. 397–400 CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/komline-augustine-will" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/pilkington-confessions", "locator": "Confessions VIII" }, { "source": "source/ekenberg-confessions-wills", "locator": "pp. 28–45" }, { "source": "source/komline-augustine-will", "locator": "pp. 59–120" } ] }, { "id": "text/daodejing", "type": "text", "label": "Daodejing", "summary": "A short aphoristic text on Dao and virtue, often read as a pragmatic manual for non-coercive governance, restraint, and self-regulation in unstable conditions.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Warring States-early imperial textual strata, with substantial philological uncertainty in chapter ordering and recension", "language": "Classical Chinese", "canonicalStatus": "Canonical book within later Daoist lineages", "timeline": [ { "id": "text-composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 2, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "c. 4th-2nd century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891", "locator": "editorial note on recension" }, { "source": "source/hansen-daoism", "locator": "dating summary" } ], "note": "Textual stratification is debated; later canonicalization is strong enough to affect received chapter order." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-tao-te-ching-1891" }, { "source": "source/hansen-daoism", "note": "Modern interpretive and textual-history control." } ] }, { "id": "text/dhammapada", "type": "text", "label": "Dhammapada", "summary": "An anthology of 423 Pali verses attributed to the Buddha, among the most widely read texts of the Pali Canon. Condenses early Buddhist teaching on mind, conduct, and the marks of existence.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Verses compiled within the early Buddhist period; the collection took shape by roughly the 3rd century BCE, with dating debated", "language": "Pali", "canonicalStatus": "Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka (Pali Canon, Theravada)", "timeline": [ { "id": "collection-formation", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 5, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Early Buddhist period; collection by roughly the 3rd century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations" } ], "note": "Individual verses may be earlier than the anthology, and the collection date is debated." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "note": "Overview of the Pali Canon's structure and formation." } ] }, { "id": "text/epic-of-gilgamesh", "type": "text", "label": "The Epic of Gilgamesh", "summary": "The Standard Babylonian epic incorporates an Atrahasis-type flood account into Gilgamesh's search for escape from death. Tablet XI is therefore an adaptation inside an immortality narrative, not the origin of the Mesopotamian flood story.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Standard Babylonian version conventionally dated to the late second millennium BCE; first-millennium tablet witnesses preserve it", "language": "Akkadian, with earlier Sumerian Gilgamesh traditions behind parts of the epic", "canonicalStatus": "Mesopotamian scholarly-literary classic; not a scripture in the later canon sense", "timeline": [ { "id": "standard-babylonian-version", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 2, "era": "BCE", "precision": "millennium" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Late 2nd millennium BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/george-babylonian-gilgamesh" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/george-babylonian-gilgamesh", "locator": "Tablet XI" }, { "source": "source/tigay-gilgamesh-evolution", "locator": "pp. 214–229" } ] }, { "id": "text/epictetus-discourses", "type": "text", "label": "Discourses of Epictetus", "summary": "A fuller set of Discourses on Stoic ethical training, preserved through Arrian's redaction of Epictetus's oral teaching.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Early 2nd century CE, by disciples and editors from Epictetus's teachings", "language": "Koine Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Foundational practical Stoic-philosophical source for later handbooks", "timeline": [ { "id": "compilation", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 2, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Early 2nd century CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-guide" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Discourses opening sections" }, { "source": "source/long-epictetus-guide" } ] }, { "id": "text/epictetus-encheiridion", "type": "text", "label": "Encheiridion (Handbook) of Epictetus", "summary": "Arrian's compact handbook distilled from Epictetus's teaching. Its opening trains judgment, desire, aversion, and impulse around what is 'up to us,' but the abridgment can mislead when detached from the fuller Discourses, social roles, and Stoic providence.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Early 2nd century CE; compiled by Arrian from Epictetus's teaching", "language": "Koine Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Influential practical handbook of Roman Stoicism; philosophical epitome, not scripture", "timeline": [ { "id": "compilation", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 2, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Early 2nd century CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-guide" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-epictetus-1877", "locator": "Encheiridion 1–2" }, { "source": "source/watanabe-encheiridion", "locator": "chapters 1–2" }, { "source": "source/long-epictetus-guide" } ] }, { "id": "text/epistle-to-hebrews", "type": "text", "label": "Epistle to the Hebrews", "summary": "An anonymous early Christian homily-letter whose closing exhortations make philoxenia—hospitality—a communal practice and evoke scriptural stories of hosts receiving angels.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Commonly dated c. 60–100 CE", "language": "Koine Greek", "canonicalStatus": "New Testament epistle", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 60, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "end": { "value": 100, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "c. 60–100 CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/martin-ot-hospitality" } ], "note": "Authorship and exact date are uncertain." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Hebrews 13:2" }, { "source": "source/martin-ot-hospitality", "note": "Supports the probable Genesis allusion while noting alternative angel-host traditions." } ] }, { "id": "text/first-corinthians", "type": "text", "label": "First Epistle to the Corinthians", "summary": "Paul's letter to a Christian assembly in Roman Corinth. Chapter 15 argues from Christ's resurrection to the future resurrection of the dead and describes not simple escape from embodiment but transformation into an incorruptible spiritual or pneumatic body whose precise sense remains disputed.", "status": "draft", "composed": "c. 53–55 CE", "language": "Koine Greek", "canonicalStatus": "New Testament epistle in Christian biblical canons", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 53, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "end": { "value": 55, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "c. 53–55 CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/cook-enspirited-body" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Corinthians 15" }, { "source": "source/cook-enspirited-body" }, { "source": "source/martin-corinthian-body" } ] }, { "id": "text/first-samuel", "type": "text", "label": "First Samuel", "summary": "Former-prophetic narratives in the Hebrew Bible that stage Israel's transition toward monarchy, including Samuel's warning against the social costs of kingship and his conditional public confirmation of a king.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Layered composition and redaction across monarchy formation and later historiographic editing; exact dating remains disputed", "language": "Biblical Hebrew", "canonicalStatus": "Book of Samuel in the Former Prophets; Hebrew Bible / Old Testament", "timeline": [ { "id": "first-samuel-composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 10, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 6, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "10th-6th century BCE traditions and redaction (disputed)", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mccarthy-1973-inauguration-monarchy", "locator": "1 Samuel 8-12" } ], "note": "The 1 Samuel 8-12 sequence is textually composite, so single-date assertions about its political theory should be treated as periodized claims." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "1 Samuel 8-12" }, { "source": "source/mccarthy-1973-inauguration-monarchy", "locator": "1 Samuel 8:7-12:15" } ] }, { "id": "text/genesis", "type": "text", "label": "Genesis", "summary": "The Torah's book of beginnings. Its flood narrative is compositionally layered and participates in an older Mesopotamian tradition, but redirects the catastrophe around violence, grief, covenant, and renewed limits on bloodshed.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Layered composition and editing, commonly placed across the first millennium BCE; the flood narrative combines Priestly and non-Priestly materials", "language": "Biblical Hebrew", "canonicalStatus": "Torah / Pentateuch", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition-and-editing", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "millennium" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Layered composition and editing across the 1st millennium BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/carr-genesis-flood" } ], "note": "Different materials and editorial stages are dated differently." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Genesis 6:5–9:17" }, { "source": "source/carr-genesis-flood", "locator": "chapter 6, pp. 141–177" } ] }, { "id": "text/gospel-of-john", "type": "text", "label": "Gospel of John", "summary": "The fourth canonical gospel: a theologically distinctive account of Jesus in which signs reveal divine glory. Its healing of the man born blind (ch. 9) directly confronts the assumption that congenital affliction must be punishment for sin.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Commonly dated c. 90–110 CE; composition history debated", "language": "Koine Greek", "canonicalStatus": "One of the four canonical gospels of the Christian New Testament", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 90, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "end": { "value": 110, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "c. 90–110 CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/brown-john" } ], "note": "The Gospel's composition history and final date remain debated." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/brown-john", "note": "Standard critical commentary; introduction covers dating and composition." } ] }, { "id": "text/gospel-of-matthew", "type": "text", "label": "Gospel of Matthew", "summary": "A canonical Christian gospel, positioned first in the New Testament and traditionally attributed within Christian transmission to Matthew. Its current Atlas scope follows the Sermon on the Mount's nonretaliation and enemy-love commands into the arrest narrative's rejection of armed rescue.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Commonly dated within the late 1st century CE; proposals and the work's redactional history remain debated", "language": "Koine Greek", "canonicalStatus": "One of the four canonical gospels of the Christian New Testament", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 70, "era": "CE", "precision": "decade" }, "end": { "value": 100, "era": "CE", "precision": "decade" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "c. 70–100 CE (proposals vary)", "note": "The range preserves disagreement over the gospel's final composition and redaction rather than selecting one proposed year.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/davies-allison-matthew-icc-volume-1-1988" }, { "source": "source/luz-matthew-1-7-hermeneia-2007" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Matthew 1" }, { "source": "source/davies-allison-matthew-icc-volume-1-1988", "note": "Critical discussion of Matthean redactional layers." }, { "source": "source/r-t-france-gospel-of-matthew-nicnt-2007", "note": "Modern exegetical assessment of canonical placement and structure." } ] }, { "id": "text/great-learning", "type": "text", "label": "Great Learning", "summary": "A short canonical Confucian text that links moral self-cultivation to the reform of family, state, and the peace under Heaven.", "status": "draft", "composed": "A layer of the Book of Rites whose pre-imperial formation and later editorial history remain debated", "language": "Classical Chinese", "canonicalStatus": "Confucian Four Books", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 5, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 2, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "5th-2nd century BCE (disputed)", "citations": [ { "source": "source/gardner-four-books-2007", "locator": "historical introduction" } ], "note": "The received text was transmitted as a Book of Rites chapter and later reorganized by Zhu Xi; the dating and extent of earlier layers remain disputed." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-great-learning-1893", "locator": "Great Learning, ch. 1" }, { "source": "source/gardner-four-books-2007", "locator": "Great Learning overview" } ] }, { "id": "text/groundwork-metaphysics-morals", "type": "text", "label": "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals", "summary": "Kant’s mature early essay on moral philosophy, central to the Kantian tradition’s account of duty, respect, and universalizability.", "status": "draft", "composed": "1785 (first publication)", "language": "German", "canonicalStatus": "Core Kantian moral philosophy text", "timeline": [ { "id": "first-edition", "kind": "publication", "start": { "value": 1785, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "exact", "display": "1785", "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/abbott-kant-groundwork-1895" } ] }, { "id": "text/itivuttaka", "type": "text", "label": "Itivuttaka", "summary": "A Pāli canonical collection of short prose-and-verse teachings attributed to the Buddha. Itivuttaka 44 distinguishes nibbāna realized during embodied life from final nibbāna when the remaining conditions of renewed existence cease.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Early Buddhist oral tradition; written transmission within the Pāli Canon by c. 1st century BCE", "language": "Pali", "canonicalStatus": "Collection in the Khuddaka Nikāya of the Theravāda Pāli Canon", "timeline": [ { "id": "written-attestation", "kind": "attestation", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Written transmission by c. 1st century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-iti44", "locator": "Iti 44" }, { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "locator": "pp. 74–79" } ] }, { "id": "text/katha-upanishad", "type": "text", "label": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad", "summary": "A dialogue in which the boy Naciketas receives three boons from Yama, rejects finite wealth and longevity, and presses the question of death until Yama teaches the good over the pleasant, disciplined inward knowledge, and liberation through the unborn Self and Brahman.", "status": "draft", "composed": "A metrical Upaniṣad later than the oldest prose Upaniṣads; commonly placed in the mid-to-late first millennium BCE, while exact date, strata, and relation to early Buddhist and other renunciant currents remain disputed", "language": "Sanskrit", "canonicalStatus": "Principal (mukhya) Upaniṣad associated with the Kaṭha school of the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda; Hindu śruti", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "millennium" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Mid-to-late 1st millennium BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads" } ], "note": "Exact date, strata, and relationship to other renunciant currents remain disputed." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/muller-katha-upanishad", "locator": "Kaṭha Upaniṣad" }, { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads", "locator": "pp. 372–403" } ] }, { "id": "text/letter-to-menoeceus", "type": "text", "label": "Letter to Menoeceus", "summary": "A short Epicurean letter attributed to Epicurus, presenting the doctrine of fearlessness, limited desire, and the pursuit of ataraxia.", "status": "draft", "composed": "4th-3rd century BCE (textual attribution and transmission layered)", "language": "Ancient Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Short doctrinal letter in the Epicurean corpus", "timeline": [ { "id": "compilation", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "4th-3rd century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/konstan-epicurus" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/hicks-epicurus-1925", "locator": "Letter to Menoeceus" }, { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "locator": "Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus" }, { "source": "source/konstan-epicurus" } ] }, { "id": "text/leviticus", "type": "text", "label": "Leviticus", "summary": "A Torah book of priestly instruction whose Holiness collection extends neighbor-love to the gēr, the resident outsider living without native standing in Israel's land.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Priestly materials composed and edited across the first millennium BCE; the dating of the Holiness collection remains debated", "language": "Biblical Hebrew", "canonicalStatus": "Torah / Pentateuch", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition-and-editing", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "millennium" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Composition and editing across the 1st millennium BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/milgrom-leviticus" } ], "note": "Priestly materials and the Holiness collection may reflect different periods." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/kjv-bible", "locator": "Leviticus 19:33–34" }, { "source": "source/milgrom-leviticus", "note": "Standard critical control; page-level text not accessed for this draft." } ] }, { "id": "text/library-of-apollodorus", "type": "text", "label": "The Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus", "summary": "A compact Greek mythographic handbook and late witness to Deucalion: Zeus floods most of Greece, the warned couple survives in a chest, sacrifices, and creates a new people from stones.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Usually dated to the first or second century CE; preserves much earlier mythic materials", "language": "Ancient Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Mythographic reference work, not a liturgical canon", "timeline": [ { "id": "compilation", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 2, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "1st–2nd century CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/frazer-apollodorus" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/frazer-apollodorus", "locator": "Library 1.7.2" }, { "source": "source/rose-dowden-deucalion" } ] }, { "id": "text/ludlul-bel-nemeqi", "type": "text", "label": "Ludlul bēl nēmeqi", "summary": "'I Will Praise the Lord of Wisdom' — the Standard Babylonian poem of the righteous sufferer, often called the 'Babylonian Job.' A pious noble, Šubši-mešrê-Šakkan, is abandoned by his gods, loses status and health despite his devotion, questions whether humans can know what pleases the gods at all, and is finally restored by Marduk. 480 lines on four canonical tablets.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Kassite Babylonia; the mention of King Nazi-Maruttaš (r. c. 1307–1282 BCE) on Tablet IV anchors the dating. Oldest surviving manuscripts are Neo-Assyrian", "language": "Akkadian (Standard Babylonian)", "canonicalStatus": "Core scribal-curriculum wisdom literature; copied for roughly a millennium across Assyria and Babylonia", "timeline": [ { "id": "kassite-composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 1307, "era": "BCE", "precision": "year" }, "end": { "value": 1282, "era": "BCE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Kassite period; anchored near the reign of Nazi-Maruttaš (c. 1307–1282 BCE)", "citations": [ { "source": "source/lambert-bwl" } ], "note": "A royal mention supplies a historical anchor but does not prove an exact composition interval." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/lambert-bwl", "note": "Foundational modern edition with translation and commentary." }, { "source": "source/annus-lenzi-ludlul", "note": "Current standard edition; establishes the ordering of Tablet IV and incorporates newly recovered lines." } ] }, { "id": "text/majjhima-nikaya", "type": "text", "label": "Majjhima Nikāya", "summary": "The Pāli Canon's collection of middle-length discourses. In MN 72, the Buddha rejects four proposed descriptions of a liberated person after death and uses an extinguished fire to expose the dependence and category assumptions behind the question.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Early Buddhist oral tradition; the collection took shape in the centuries after the Buddha and was committed to writing c. 1st century BCE", "language": "Pali", "canonicalStatus": "Second collection of the Sutta Piṭaka in the Theravāda Pāli Canon", "timeline": [ { "id": "written-attestation", "kind": "attestation", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Committed to writing c. 1st century BCE after oral transmission", "citations": [ { "source": "source/collins-nirvana" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-mn72", "locator": "MN 72" }, { "source": "source/collins-nirvana", "locator": "pp. 29–60" } ] }, { "id": "text/marcus-aurelius-meditations", "type": "text", "label": "Meditations", "summary": "Marcus Aurelius's Greek philosophical notebook, organized in twelve books and used here for its Stoic exercises concerning judgment, changing circumstances, social contribution, and one's place in a larger whole.", "status": "draft", "composed": "c. 170–180 CE; private notes whose internal sequence and exact dating remain uncertain", "language": "Ancient Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Major surviving Roman Stoic text; not originally composed as a published treatise", "timeline": [ { "id": "writing-cycle", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 170, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "end": { "value": 180, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Commonly dated to AD 170–180 as campaign-era and court-period composition; exact dating remains debated.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/hadot-inner-citadel" } ], "note": "The conventional range is approximate; individual notes are not securely dated." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/long-meditations-1862" }, { "source": "source/hadot-inner-citadel" }, { "source": "source/sellars-stoicism" } ] }, { "id": "text/mencius", "type": "text", "label": "Mencius", "summary": "A Classical Chinese collection attributed to Mengzi (Meng Ke) and his followers, with political teachings emphasizing humane rule, ruler conduct, and the moral conditions for legitimacy.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Core strata are usually placed in the Warring States period with later redaction and transmission history.", "language": "Classical Chinese", "canonicalStatus": "Classical Chinese philosophical classic", "timeline": [ { "id": "mencius-composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 2, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Core teachings likely 4th–3rd century BCE with substantial later editorial layering", "citations": [ { "source": "source/van-norden-mengzi-2008" }, { "source": "source/pines-everlasting-empire", "locator": "textual transmission" } ], "note": "Scholars diverge on the dating window for specific book-level layers; modern scholarship treats the received text as a stratified tradition." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-mencius-1895", "locator": "Mencius 1A:1" }, { "source": "source/van-norden-mengzi-2008", "locator": "Mengzi" }, { "source": "source/pines-everlasting-empire", "locator": "historical composition" } ] }, { "id": "text/nicomachean-ethics", "type": "text", "label": "Nicomachean Ethics", "summary": "Aristotle's sustained treatment of human flourishing, practical wisdom, and moral habituation, transmitted as a composite textual body linked to the Nicomachean corpus.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Traditionally ascribed to Aristotle and circulated in 4th-century BCE manuscript layers with later redaction", "language": "Ancient Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Core Aristotle treatise within the Aristotelian tradition", "timeline": [ { "id": "compilation", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "4th century BCE (compilation and redaction debated)", "note": "The transmission history is debated regarding when Aristotle's lecture notes were editorially finalized.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925", "locator": "Nicomachean Ethics, all books" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics" } ] }, { "id": "text/odyssey", "type": "text", "label": "Odyssey", "summary": "An archaic Greek epic in which reception of strangers is a repeated type-scene and a socially consequential institution: hosts feed before questioning, guest-friendship can persist across generations, and Zeus sanctions treatment of strangers and suppliants.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Conventionally dated to the late 8th or early 7th century BCE after a long oral tradition", "language": "Ancient Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Homeric epic; foundational work of ancient Greek literature and religious imagination", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 8, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 7, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Late 8th–early 7th century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/murray-odyssey" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/murray-odyssey", "locator": "Odyssey 1.120–124; 9.266–271; 14.56–59" }, { "source": "source/reece-strangers-welcome" }, { "source": "source/herman-ritualised-friendship" } ] }, { "id": "text/on-liberty", "type": "text", "label": "On Liberty", "summary": "Mill’s 1859 liberal political text on individuality, the limits of coercion, and the harm principle as a public ethic.", "status": "draft", "composed": "1859", "language": "English", "canonicalStatus": "Foundational modern liberal-legal treatise", "timeline": [ { "id": "first-publication", "kind": "publication", "start": { "value": 1859, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "exact", "display": "1859", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-on-liberty-1859" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-on-liberty-1859" } ] }, { "id": "text/outlines-of-pyrrhonism", "type": "text", "label": "Outlines of Pyrrhonism", "summary": "Sextus's systematic presentation of Pyrrhonian skeptical practice, preserving both practical technique (epoche) and the broader argument that suspension can reduce distress in doctrinal conflict.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Usually placed in the 2nd or 3rd century CE; Sextus's exact dates remain uncertain", "language": "Ancient Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Philosophical skeptical text in the broader ancient skeptical corpus", "timeline": [ { "id": "text-composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 2, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "2nd–3rd century CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus", "locator": "textual-historical profile" }, { "source": "source/bett-pyrrho-legacy", "locator": "transmission history" } ], "note": "The work's attribution to Sextus is stable; Sextus's lifetime and the exact order of his writings remain uncertain." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "note": "Public-domain English witness to Book I; wording is historically dated." }, { "source": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus" }, { "source": "source/bett-pyrrho-legacy" }, { "source": "source/perin-demands-reason" } ] }, { "id": "text/phaedo", "type": "text", "label": "Phaedo", "summary": "Plato's dramatic account of Socrates' final day develops philosophical preparation for death, multiple arguments concerning the soul's survival, objections from Simmias and Cebes, and a deliberately qualified afterlife myth.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Fourth century BCE; commonly assigned to Plato's middle period, with exact dating disputed", "language": "Attic Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Canonical Platonic philosophical dialogue; not scripture", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "4th century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ebrey-phaedo" } ], "note": "The dialogue is commonly assigned to Plato's middle period, but exact dating is disputed." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-phaedo-1892", "locator": "Phaedo" }, { "source": "source/ebrey-phaedo" }, { "source": "source/lorenz-ancient-soul", "locator": "§3.1" } ] }, { "id": "text/plato-republic", "type": "text", "label": "Plato, Republic", "summary": "A classical Greek dialogue on justice, political order, and governance that links justice in the soul to justice in the city.", "status": "draft", "composed": "4th century BCE, conventionally placed around the 380s-370s BCE; exact completion and revision history are disputed", "language": "Ancient Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Foundational text in the Platonic corpus", "timeline": [ { "id": "plato-republic-composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "4th century BCE (exact date disputed)", "citations": [ { "source": "source/annas-introduction-platos-republic-1981", "locator": "Introduction" }, { "source": "source/schofield-plato-political-philosophy-2006", "locator": "introduction" } ], "note": "The dialogue is usually placed in Plato's middle period, but its exact date and whether it underwent meaningful revision remain disputed." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/jowett-republic-1892", "locator": "Republic 327a–580c (modern pagination varies)" }, { "source": "source/annas-introduction-platos-republic-1981", "locator": "Introduction and chapters 1–2", "note": "Modern framing of structure and chronology disputes." }, { "source": "source/schofield-plato-political-philosophy-2006", "locator": "Introduction and chapters 2–4", "note": "Political-theoretical placement of the dialogue within Plato scholarship." } ] }, { "id": "text/principal-doctrines", "type": "text", "label": "Epicurean Principal Doctrines", "summary": "Foundational short maxims and doctrinal summaries transmitted as part of the Epicurean tradition of practical philosophy.", "status": "draft", "composed": "4th-3rd century BCE, with editorial framing in later preservation", "language": "Ancient Greek", "canonicalStatus": "Core doctrinal compendium in Epicurean reception", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "4th-3rd century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/konstan-epicurus" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926", "locator": "Principal Doctrines" }, { "source": "source/konstan-epicurus" } ] }, { "id": "text/quran", "type": "text", "label": "Qur'an", "summary": "The scripture of Islam, held by Muslims to be the direct speech of God revealed to Muhammad. Current Atlas passages include Job as an exemplar of steadfastness and Abraham's honoured guests; related verses distinguish neighbors, fellow travelers, and wayfarers rather than supplying one undifferentiated legal category of 'stranger.'", "status": "draft", "composed": "Early 7th century CE (revelations c. 610–632 in Muslim tradition); codified in the mid-7th century", "language": "Classical Arabic", "canonicalStatus": "The foundational scripture of Islam", "timeline": [ { "id": "revelation-and-composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 610, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "end": { "value": 632, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "c. 610–632 CE in Muslim tradition; codified in the mid-7th century", "citations": [ { "source": "source/johns-quranic-job" }, { "source": "source/pickthall-quran" } ], "note": "The displayed interval follows traditional revelation chronology; scholarship distinguishes revelation, collection, and codification questions." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/johns-quranic-job", "note": "Surveys the Qur'anic Job material and its relation to the wider Job tradition." }, { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "Qur'an 4:36; 9:60; 51:24–30" }, { "source": "source/saritoprak-welcoming-stranger", "locator": "pp. 72–81", "note": "On the Abraham hospitality narrative in Islamic reception." } ] }, { "id": "text/samyutta-nikaya", "type": "text", "label": "Saṃyutta Nikāya", "summary": "The 'Connected Discourses' of the Pali Canon — thousands of suttas grouped by topic. Current Atlas passages include the two arrows (SN 36.6), the second noble truth's forms of taṇhā (SN 56.11), and the refusal of eternalist and annihilationist self-survival frames (SN 44.10).", "status": "draft", "composed": "Early Buddhist oral tradition; the collection took shape in the centuries after the Buddha and was committed to writing c. 1st century BCE", "language": "Pali", "canonicalStatus": "Third collection of the Sutta Piṭaka (Pali Canon, Theravada)", "timeline": [ { "id": "written-attestation", "kind": "attestation", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Committed to writing c. 1st century BCE after oral transmission", "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "note": "Overview of the Pali Canon's structure and transmission." }, { "source": "source/sujato-sn56-11", "locator": "SN 56.11" }, { "source": "source/sujato-sn44-10", "locator": "SN 44.10" } ] }, { "id": "text/satapatha-brahmana", "type": "text", "label": "Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa", "summary": "A Śukla Yajurveda ritual prose text whose Manu episode makes reciprocal protection, a horned fish, survival, austerity, and sacrifice the bridge from flood to renewed human life.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Layered first-millennium BCE prose; exact dating and internal chronology remain debated", "language": "Vedic Sanskrit", "canonicalStatus": "Brāhmaṇa of the Śukla Yajurveda", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "millennium" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Layered composition in the 1st millennium BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/eggeling-satapatha" } ], "note": "The text contains layers whose internal chronology remains debated." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/eggeling-satapatha", "locator": "Mādhyandina recension 1.8.1" } ] }, { "id": "text/sutrakritanga", "type": "text", "label": "Sūtrakṛtāṅga", "summary": "A Śvetāmbara canonical text combining polemic and discipline. The selected passages connect killing, causing, and consent to bondage; define carefulness toward creatures; and debate how mental, verbal, and bodily activity produce harm.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Layered early Jain material with disputed internal chronology and later commentary", "language": "Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit", "canonicalStatus": "Second Aṅga of the Śvetāmbara Jain canon", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 2, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Layered mid-to-late 1st-millennium BCE material", "note": "Relative strata, oral transmission, and later commentary prevent a single secure composition date.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/dundas-jains" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2" }, { "source": "source/dundas-jains" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" } ] }, { "id": "text/sutta-nipata", "type": "text", "label": "Sutta Nipāta", "summary": "A verse anthology in the Pāli Canon's Khuddaka Nikāya. The current Atlas scope pairs Snp 1.8, the Karaṇīyamettā Sutta, with Snp 4.15, the Attadaṇḍa Sutta, while treating their loving-kindness and critique of taking up arms as renunciant teaching rather than a complete political theory.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Layered early Buddhist verse material; the collection's internal chronology and compilation history remain debated", "language": "Pali", "canonicalStatus": "Khuddaka Nikāya, Pāli Canon (Theravāda)", "timeline": [ { "id": "written-attestation", "kind": "attestation", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Pāli Canon committed to writing c. 1st century BCE after oral transmission", "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/sujato-sutta-nipata" }, { "source": "source/gethin-foundations", "note": "Overview of the Khuddaka Nikāya and the formation of the Pāli Canon." } ] }, { "id": "text/utilitarianism", "type": "text", "label": "Utilitarianism", "summary": "Mill’s formulation and defense of utilitarian ethics, contrasting with earlier forms and setting out a version of the utility principle intended for ethical and public-policy reasoning.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Serialized in 1861, published in book form in 1863", "language": "English", "canonicalStatus": "Canonical 19th-century utilitarian treatise", "timeline": [ { "id": "serialized-appearance", "kind": "publication", "start": { "value": 1861, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "exact", "display": "Serialized in 1861", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863" } ] }, { "id": "book-publication", "kind": "publication", "start": { "value": 1863, "era": "CE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "exact", "display": "Published in book form in 1863", "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/mill-utilitarianism-1863" } ] }, { "id": "text/uttaradhyayana-sutra", "type": "text", "label": "Uttarādhyayana Sūtra", "summary": "A Śvetāmbara Mūlasūtra anthology of monastic instruction, narrative, doctrine, and practice. Its selected lectures turn non-harm into disciplined attention across walking, thought, speech, bodily action, and accountability for one's deeds.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Composite Jain monastic anthology; the dates and relative strata of its lectures remain disputed", "language": "Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit", "canonicalStatus": "Mūlasūtra of the Śvetāmbara Jain canon", "timeline": [ { "id": "composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 1, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Composite late-1st-millennium BCE to early-CE anthology", "note": "Individual lectures differ in age; the band describes compilation uncertainty rather than dating every verse alike.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/dundas-jains" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/jacobi-jaina-sutras-part-2" }, { "source": "source/dundas-jains" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" } ] }, { "id": "text/zhuangzi", "type": "text", "label": "Zhuangzi", "summary": "A major early Daoist text centered on instability, perspectival humility, and action without force; often transmitted as a layered anthology rather than a single stabilized composition.", "status": "draft", "composed": "Core materials from the late Zhou transmission phase, with editorial development across later recensions", "language": "Classical Chinese", "canonicalStatus": "Classic work associated with early Daoist thought", "timeline": [ { "id": "text-composition", "kind": "composition", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "4th-3rd century BCE (layered transmission)", "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "introductory matter" }, { "source": "source/ziporyn-zhuangzi-essential", "locator": "composition and transmission" } ], "note": "Compilation and redaction history is debated; this point reflects the best-supported conservative window." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891" }, { "source": "source/ziporyn-zhuangzi-essential" }, { "source": "source/roth-zhuangzi" } ] }, { "id": "theme/death-liberation", "type": "theme", "label": "Death and liberation", "summary": "Accounts of mortality, postmortem continuity, rebirth, resurrection, immortality, and release from conditioned existence—categories whose contrasts matter more than a generic idea of an afterlife.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "death and the afterlife", "immortality", "resurrection", "rebirth and release", "nirvāṇa", "mokṣa" ] }, { "id": "theme/desire-self-mastery", "type": "theme", "label": "Desire and self-mastery", "summary": "Practices and diagnoses concerning craving, attachment, appetite, volition, disciplined action, divided will, and freedom—terms whose differences matter more than an easy slogan about suppressing desire.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "craving", "attachment", "discipline of desire", "divided will", "self-command" ] }, { "id": "theme/hospitality", "type": "theme", "label": "Hospitality and the stranger", "summary": "Practices and obligations that turn an unknown, vulnerable, or socially marginal person into a protected guest or neighbor—without pretending that guest, traveler, resident alien, and divine visitor are identical categories.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "guest-friendship", "philoxenia", "xenia", "honoring the guest" ] }, { "id": "theme/human-flourishing", "type": "theme", "label": "Human flourishing", "summary": "A comparative ethics theme concerned with what it means for a human life to be good, complete, and stable in practice.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "flourishing", "eudaimonia", "good life", "well-being" ] }, { "id": "theme/impermanence", "type": "theme", "label": "Impermanence", "summary": "The instability of all conditioned things — persons, fortunes, worlds. Traditions differ sharply on whether impermanence is a problem to be escaped, a truth to be accepted, or a veil over something permanent.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "anicca", "transience", "mutability" ] }, { "id": "theme/moral-obligation", "type": "theme", "label": "Moral obligation", "summary": "A comparative ethics theme asking which commitments toward others count as obligations, how those obligations are justified, and what scope and limits they carry.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "moral duty", "ethical obligation", "duty and obligation" ] }, { "id": "theme/political-legitimacy", "type": "theme", "label": "Political legitimacy", "summary": "A comparative theme for how texts authorize, discipline, classify, and sometimes revoke political rule while distinguishing moral formation, constitutional purpose, popular welfare, and divine or cosmic accountability.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "right to rule", "legitimate government", "ruler accountability", "political authority" ] }, { "id": "theme/uncertainty-and-control", "type": "theme", "label": "Uncertainty and control", "summary": "A comparative theme for traditions that answer what human agency means when control is partial: how people reinterpret control, cultivate steadiness, or reframe agency without erasing responsibility.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "acting under uncertainty", "limited agency", "uncertainty", "control and responsibility" ] }, { "id": "theme/violence-and-nonviolence", "type": "theme", "label": "Violence and nonviolence", "summary": "A comparative theme for how texts delimit harm, retaliation, coercion, protection, and disciplined nonviolence while keeping personal, ascetic, communal, and political obligations distinct.", "status": "draft", "aliases": [ "non-harm", "nonretaliation", "pacifism and force", "violence and restraint" ] }, { "id": "tradition/aristotelianism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Aristotelianism", "summary": "A philosophical tradition rooted in Aristotle's moral and practical philosophy, interpreted through his treatise traditions and commentarial schools around flourishing, reason, and the mean.", "status": "draft", "era": "c. 4th century BCE onward", "region": "Classical Greek world and its Hellenistic reception", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "eudaimonia", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Well-being or flourishing understood as complete human function and activity." }, { "term": "phronesis", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Practical wisdom for ethically discerning means toward the good." }, { "term": "mesotes", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "The ethical mean between excess and deficiency." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "c. 4th century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/ross-nicomachean-ethics-1925" }, { "source": "source/kraut-aristotle-ethics" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/buddhism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Buddhism", "summary": "The traditions deriving from the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama, organized around the diagnosis of dukkha and the path to its cessation. Current Atlas scope includes impermanence, the two arrows, taṇhā, and early Pāli distinctions between awakening in life and final nibbāna without reducing liberation to either eternal self-survival or annihilation.", "status": "draft", "era": "c. 5th century BCE origins in northern India", "region": "Northern India; later across Asia and worldwide", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "dukkha", "language": "Pali", "gloss": "Suffering, unsatisfactoriness, the unreliability of conditioned things — broader than the English 'suffering'." }, { "term": "anicca", "language": "Pali", "gloss": "Impermanence; one of the three marks of conditioned existence." }, { "term": "taṇhā", "language": "Pali", "gloss": "Craving or thirst that appropriates experience and sustains dukkha; not a synonym for every motivation or wish." }, { "term": "chanda", "language": "Pali", "gloss": "Intention, interest, or desire-to-act that can be wholesome or unwholesome depending on object and context." }, { "term": "nibbāna", "language": "Pali", "gloss": "Extinguishment or quenching of greed, hate, and delusion and release from renewed existence; its fire and coolness imagery should not be forced into a modern existence-versus-nonexistence binary." }, { "term": "parinibbāna", "language": "Pali", "gloss": "Complete extinguishment; context determines whether the term concerns liberation during life or final nibbāna at the end of an awakened person's last life." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 5, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "c. 5th century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/gethin-foundations" }, { "source": "source/harvey-introduction-buddhism", "locator": "p. 63" }, { "source": "source/sujato-sn56-11", "locator": "SN 56.11" }, { "source": "source/sujato-iti44", "locator": "Iti 44" }, { "source": "source/collins-nirvana", "locator": "pp. 29–60" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/christianity", "type": "tradition", "label": "Christianity", "summary": "The traditions centered on Jesus of Nazareth as the decisive revelation of God. Current Atlas scope includes John on suffering, Hebrews on hospitality, Augustine on will and grace, and Paul's resurrection hope in 1 Corinthians 15.", "status": "draft", "era": "1st century CE origins in Roman Judea", "region": "Roman Judea; then the Mediterranean world and beyond", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "theodicy", "language": "Greek (modern coinage from theos + dikē)", "gloss": "The justification of God in the face of evil — the later technical name for this question in Christian and post-Christian philosophy." }, { "term": "voluntas", "language": "Latin", "gloss": "Will or willing; in Augustine's Confessions VIII, experienced as partial and divided rather than transparently self-commanding." }, { "term": "gratia", "language": "Latin", "gloss": "Grace: God's unmerited action, indispensable to Augustine's narration of conversion and healed agency." }, { "term": "anastasis", "language": "Koine Greek", "gloss": "Rising or resurrection; in 1 Corinthians 15, the future raising of the dead patterned on Christ." }, { "term": "sōma pneumatikon", "language": "Koine Greek", "gloss": "Spiritual or pneumatic body; Paul's contested phrase for transformed resurrection embodiment, whose composition, animating principle, and precise continuity remain debated." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "1st century CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/brown-john" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/brown-john" }, { "source": "source/martin-ot-hospitality" }, { "source": "source/komline-augustine-will" }, { "source": "source/cook-enspirited-body" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/confucianism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Confucianism", "summary": "A Chinese ethical-political tradition centered on human relational cultivation, ritual propriety, and the moral formation of personhood through patterned action.", "status": "draft", "era": "6th-5th century BCE core teachings; edited and transmitted over later centuries", "region": "Late Zhou and classical Chinese contexts", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "ren", "language": "Classical Chinese", "gloss": "Humane concern and moral reciprocity among persons." }, { "term": "li", "language": "Classical Chinese", "gloss": "Ritual patterning that stabilizes social life." }, { "term": "xiao", "language": "Classical Chinese", "gloss": "Filial piety as a primary ethic of relational order." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 6, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 5, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "6th-5th century BCE", "note": "Dating is disputed because texts are layered and survive through later canonization.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/riegel-confucius" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/legge-analects-1893" }, { "source": "source/riegel-confucius" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/early-daoist-philosophy", "type": "tradition", "label": "Early Daoist philosophy", "summary": "A cluster of early Warring States ideas centered on alignment with changing circumstance, minimal intervention, and non-coercive order. The label is comparative and historical, not a single authorial school identity.", "status": "draft", "era": "Late Zhou dynasty (c. 5th-3rd century BCE) with later Han transmission", "region": "North and east China in the Warring States/Han transition", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "Dao", "language": "Classical Chinese", "gloss": "Way or process by which patterns unfold; often used less as a doctrine to grasp than as the totality one can attune to." }, { "term": "wu wei", "language": "Classical Chinese", "gloss": "Non-forcing action or non-coercive efficacy; not passivity, but action that does not insist on domination." }, { "term": "ziran", "language": "Classical Chinese", "gloss": "Spontaneity or self-so; a tendency of things when not overconstrained." }, { "term": "de", "language": "Classical Chinese", "gloss": "Potency, efficacy, or virtue expressed through non-grasping participation in process." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "tradition-emergence", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 5, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Late 5th to early 3rd century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/hansen-daoism", "locator": "formation and early circulation" }, { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891", "locator": "Introduction" } ], "note": "Textual layers and transmission are disputed; the traditional school name is partly retrospective." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/hansen-daoism" }, { "source": "source/legge-zhuangzi-1891" }, { "source": "source/roth-zhuangzi" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/epicureanism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Epicureanism", "summary": "A Hellenistic philosophical tradition emphasizing pleasure as freedom from disturbance, materialist explanation of soul and gods, and disciplined desire management.", "status": "draft", "era": "4th to 3rd century BCE (school formation), with later elaborations", "region": "Hellenistic Mediterranean", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "ataraxia", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Untroubled tranquility of mind." }, { "term": "aponia", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Absence of bodily pain." }, { "term": "hedone", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Pleasure understood as a criterion of a good, bounded life." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "4th-3rd century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/konstan-epicurus" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/bailey-epicurus-1926" }, { "source": "source/konstan-epicurus" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/greek-religion", "type": "tradition", "label": "Ancient Greek religion", "summary": "The diverse civic, poetic, and mythographic traditions of the ancient Greek world. Deucalion is not a single fixed canon narrative: local versions differ on survivors and landing places, and late witnesses preserve earlier material through their own concerns.", "status": "draft", "era": "Bronze Age antecedents; textually attested from archaic Greece onward", "region": "Aegean and wider Greek Mediterranean", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "Deukaliōn", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Deucalion, flood survivor and ancestor" }, { "term": "larnax", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "chest or coffer used as Deucalion's vessel" } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "early-attestation", "kind": "attestation", "start": { "value": 8, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Textually attested from the 8th century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/rose-dowden-deucalion" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/rose-dowden-deucalion" }, { "source": "source/frazer-apollodorus", "locator": "Library 1.7.2" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/hinduism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Hinduism", "summary": "A diverse family of South Asian traditions continuous with and transformative of Vedic and Brahmanical inheritances. Current Atlas scope includes the Bhagavad Gītā's disciplined action and desire teaching and the Kaṭha Upaniṣad's Naciketas dialogue on the unborn Self, Brahman, and deathlessness.", "status": "draft", "era": "Formative continuities from Vedic and Brahmanical traditions; major classical syntheses in the late first millennium BCE and first millennium CE", "region": "South Asia; later worldwide", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "kāma", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "Desire, pleasure, or wish; its moral force depends on object, context, and relation to dharma." }, { "term": "yoga", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "Disciplined integration or path; the Gītā develops disciplines of action, knowledge, meditation, and devotion." }, { "term": "dharma", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "Norm, duty, or sustaining order; in the Gītā, Arjuna's concrete obligations frame the problem of disciplined action." }, { "term": "ātman", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "Self; in the Kaṭha, an unborn death-transcending principle, not simply the ordinary ego or biography." }, { "term": "Brahman", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "Ultimate reality; Kaṭha II.3.14–15 describes the mortal as attaining Brahman when the heart's desires and knots are released." }, { "term": "śreyas / preyas", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "The better or good versus the pleasant or dear in Kaṭha I.2; a contrast in objects of choice, not a blanket claim that every pleasure is evil." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "formative-period", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 2, "era": "BCE", "precision": "millennium" }, "end": { "value": 1, "era": "CE", "precision": "millennium" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Formative continuities from the 2nd millennium BCE; classical syntheses span the late 1st millennium BCE and 1st millennium CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/malinar-bhagavad-gita" }, { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads" } ], "note": "Hinduism has no single foundation event; the range represents long, debated processes of continuity and synthesis." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/malinar-bhagavad-gita" }, { "source": "source/olivelle-early-upanishads", "locator": "pp. 372–403" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/islam", "type": "tradition", "label": "Islam", "summary": "Submission to the one God (Allah) as revealed through the Qur'an to Muhammad. Current Atlas scope includes Job as an exemplar of steadfastness, Abraham's honoured guests, Qur'anic distinctions among neighbors and wayfarers, and the bounded guest right preserved in sound hadith and debated in Islamic law.", "status": "draft", "era": "7th century CE origins in the Hijaz", "region": "Arabian Peninsula; then worldwide", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "ṣabr", "language": "Arabic", "gloss": "Steadfast patience under trial — an active virtue of endurance and trust, not passive resignation." }, { "term": "balāʾ", "language": "Arabic", "gloss": "Trial or testing; a common Qur'anic frame for adversity." }, { "term": "ḍayf", "language": "Arabic", "gloss": "Guest; sound hadith frames reception as a host's duty while also limiting the guest from burdening the host." }, { "term": "ibn al-sabīl", "language": "Arabic", "gloss": "Literally 'son of the road': a wayfarer or traveler cut off from usable resources, included among recipients of material aid." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 7, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "7th century CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/johns-quranic-job" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/johns-quranic-job", "note": "Johns notes Job is 'a byword for patience' in the Islamic tradition despite only six Qur'anic verses." }, { "source": "source/pickthall-quran", "locator": "Qur'an 4:36; 9:60; 51:24–30" }, { "source": "source/salihin-hospitality-rights", "note": "Surveys sound hadith and legal disagreement over whether hospitality is obligatory or recommended." } ] }, { "id": "tradition/jainism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Jainism", "summary": "A family of Indian traditions organized around liberation of jīvas through right faith, knowledge, and conduct. Its rigorous ahiṃsā disciplines grade responsibility across mind, speech, body, direct action, causation, and consent while distinguishing mendicant great vows from lay lesser vows.", "status": "draft", "era": "Ancient north Indian śramaṇa tradition; Mahāvīra conventionally placed in the 1st millennium BCE", "region": "Northern India; later across South Asia and global diasporas", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "ahiṃsā", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "Non-injury or non-harm, extending across forms of life and across thought, speech, and bodily action." }, { "term": "jīva", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "Living soul; Jain classifications of embodied jīvas expand the field of beings toward whom care is required." }, { "term": "apramatta", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "Careful or vigilant; the opposite of negligent conduct that causes injury and karmic bondage." }, { "term": "mahāvrata / aṇuvrata", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "Great mendicant vows and lesser lay vows; a structural distinction that prevents treating every Jain role as subject to identical discipline." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 6, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Ancient north Indian origins; conventional chronologies vary", "note": "Mahāvīra's dates and the relation between remembered teachers, community formation, and textual redaction are not one event.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/dundas-jains" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/dundas-jains" }, { "source": "source/wiley-historical-dictionary-jainism" }, { "source": "source/cort-jains-in-the-world" }, { "source": "source/long-jainism-introduction" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/judaism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Judaism", "summary": "The religion and civilization of the Jewish people, centered on covenant with one God, Torah, and its ongoing interpretation. Scoped here only as far as the Book of Job and mourning practice require.", "status": "draft", "era": "First millennium BCE origins; continuous development since", "region": "Ancient Israel/Judah; later worldwide diaspora", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "tzaddik", "language": "Hebrew", "gloss": "A righteous person — the figure whose suffering the Book of Job makes acute." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "formation", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "millennium" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Formation debated across the 1st millennium BCE and Second Temple period", "citations": [ { "source": "source/collins-invention-judaism" }, { "source": "source/adler-origins-judaism" } ], "note": "Textual identity, communal self-description, and widespread Torah observance need not begin at the same moment; scholarship locates different formation thresholds." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/collins-invention-judaism" }, { "source": "source/adler-origins-judaism" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/kantian-ethics", "type": "tradition", "label": "Kantian ethics", "summary": "A deontological tradition associated with Immanuel Kant that evaluates morality through rational agency, duty, and the unconditional form of moral requirement. It is distinct from consequentialist theories in the grounding and justification it offers for obligation.", "status": "draft", "era": "Late 18th century CE", "region": "Prussian-German Enlightenment milieu and later global Kant scholarship", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "kategorischer Imperativ", "language": "German", "gloss": "A universal law-like principle used as a test for morally valid maxims." }, { "term": "Pflicht", "language": "German", "gloss": "Duty or moral requirement independent of personal preference." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 18, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "Late 18th century", "citations": [ { "source": "source/johnson-cureton-kant-moral" }, { "source": "source/wood-kantian-ethics" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/johnson-cureton-kant-moral" }, { "source": "source/wood-kantian-ethics" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/mesopotamian-religion", "type": "tradition", "label": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion", "summary": "The polytheistic religious world of Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria: city gods, temple cult, divination, and a rich wisdom literature that includes the earliest sustained reflections on undeserved suffering. Scoped here as far as Ludlul bēl nēmeqi requires.", "status": "draft", "era": "c. 3500–539 BCE (Sumerian through Neo-Babylonian periods); traditions persisted into late antiquity", "region": "Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and eastern Syria)", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "šēdu / lamassu", "language": "Akkadian", "gloss": "Protective spirits whose departure from a person, in texts like Ludlul, marks abandonment to misfortune." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "documented-practice", "kind": "practice", "start": { "value": 3500, "era": "BCE", "precision": "year" }, "end": { "value": 539, "era": "BCE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "c. 3500–539 BCE, with traditions persisting later", "citations": [ { "source": "source/lambert-bwl" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/lambert-bwl", "note": "Lambert's introduction situates the wisdom corpus within Mesopotamian religion." } ] }, { "id": "tradition/platonism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Platonism", "summary": "The philosophical traditions formed around Plato's dialogues and their later interpretation. Current Atlas claims remain specific to the Phaedo's dramatic arguments about philosophical life, soul-body separation, immortality, and a qualified afterlife myth rather than treating all later Platonism as identical.", "status": "draft", "era": "Fourth century BCE Platonic dialogues; later Academic, Middle Platonic, and Neoplatonic developments", "region": "Ancient Greek Mediterranean; later Roman and late antique worlds and beyond", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "psychē", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Soul or animating life-principle; not simply equivalent to the modern category mind." }, { "term": "katharsis", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Purification; in the Phaedo, associated with freeing the soul's activity from bodily domination." }, { "term": "athanasia", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Immortality or deathlessness, which the Phaedo attempts to establish through several arguments and objections." }, { "term": "meletē thanatou", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Practice or preparation for death; philosophical purification during life, not a license for suicide." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "4th century BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/ebrey-phaedo" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/ebrey-phaedo" }, { "source": "source/lorenz-ancient-soul", "locator": "§3.1" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/pyrrhonism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Pyrrhonism", "summary": "A skeptical tradition that sets opposed appearances and arguments against one another and suspends judgment where the dispute remains undecided. Sextus connects this practice with tranquillity while preserving ordinary life through appearances, customs, skills, and natural needs.", "status": "draft", "era": "Hellenistic roots in the late 4th century BCE; textual profile stabilized in the Roman Imperial period", "region": "Hellenistic Greece and Roman intellectual networks", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "epochē", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Suspension of judgment when competing considerations remain undecided." }, { "term": "ataraxia", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Unperturbed composure produced as a therapeutic effect of suspended assent." }, { "term": "isostheneia", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Equipollence: the opposed considerations appear equal in persuasive force." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "tradition-continuity", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 4, "era": "BCE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 3, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Late 4th century BCE to the 2nd–3rd century CE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899", "locator": "Pyrrho and Hellenistic setting" }, { "source": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus", "locator": "Sextus on Pyrrhonian method" } ], "note": "Pyrrho's relationship to the later tradition and Sextus's exact date are disputed; this range marks the named ancestry and surviving systematic witness, not uninterrupted institutional continuity." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/vogt-sextus-empiricus" }, { "source": "source/patrick-pyrrhonic-sketches-1899" }, { "source": "source/perin-demands-reason" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/stoicism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Stoicism", "summary": "A Hellenistic philosophical school that locates freedom and flourishing in rational agency aligned with nature. Epictetus trains desire and aversion around what depends on one's own agency, not around acquiring control over externals.", "status": "draft", "era": "Founded in Athens c. 300 BCE; Roman Stoicism flourished in the first and second centuries CE", "region": "Hellenistic Mediterranean; later Roman Empire", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "prohairesis", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "The faculty of rational choice or moral purpose that Epictetus treats as properly one's own." }, { "term": "orexis", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Desire or reaching toward; trained together with aversion so that agency does not depend on externals." }, { "term": "apatheia", "language": "Ancient Greek", "gloss": "Freedom from disordered passions, not literal absence of all feeling or concern." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 300, "era": "BCE", "precision": "year" }, "certainty": "approximate", "display": "c. 300 BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/durand-shogry-baltzly-stoicism" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/durand-shogry-baltzly-stoicism" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/utilitarianism", "type": "tradition", "label": "Utilitarianism", "summary": "A consequentialist tradition that evaluates actions and institutions through their effects on utility, variously specified as happiness, welfare, or preference satisfaction across utilitarian theories.", "status": "draft", "era": "Late 18th to 19th century", "region": "British and transatlantic modern philosophy", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "utility", "language": "English", "gloss": "The comparative normative measure used to judge actions by their beneficial consequences." }, { "term": "happiness", "language": "English", "gloss": "The broad outcome standard frequently identified with well-being in utilitarian texts." } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "origin", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 18, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "end": { "value": 19, "era": "CE", "precision": "century" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "Late 18th to 19th century", "note": "The boundary is conventional: antecedents predate Bentham, while the named movement and its canonical formulations developed across several generations.", "citations": [ { "source": "source/driver-history-utilitarianism" }, { "source": "source/crisp-routledge-utilitarianism" } ] } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/driver-history-utilitarianism" }, { "source": "source/crisp-routledge-utilitarianism" } ] }, { "id": "tradition/vedic-religion", "type": "tradition", "label": "Vedic religion", "summary": "The ritual and speculative tradition represented by the Vedic corpus and its Brāhmaṇas. The early Śatapatha account makes Manu's survival a prelude to sacrifice and renewed progeny; later Hindu Matsya narratives substantially elaborate it and should not be projected backward.", "status": "draft", "era": "Second to first millennium BCE; Śatapatha layers conventionally dated within the first millennium BCE", "region": "Northern South Asia", "keyTerms": [ { "term": "Manu", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "primordial human and flood survivor" }, { "term": "Iḍā", "language": "Sanskrit", "gloss": "sacrificial blessing and personified source of renewed progeny in this account" } ], "timeline": [ { "id": "formative-period", "kind": "origin", "start": { "value": 2, "era": "BCE", "precision": "millennium" }, "end": { "value": 1, "era": "BCE", "precision": "millennium" }, "certainty": "disputed", "display": "2nd–1st millennium BCE", "citations": [ { "source": "source/eggeling-satapatha" } ], "note": "The boundary between Vedic periods and the dating of individual textual layers are scholarly reconstructions, not a single foundation event." } ], "citations": [ { "source": "source/eggeling-satapatha", "locator": "Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 1.8.1" } ] } ] }